1

Accessibility of Domestic Violence Services in Canada for South Asian Immigrant Women

by
Shuada Ahmed
Under the Supervision of Dr. Harpreet Aulakh
An Honours Project submitted
in partial fulfillment
of the Degree requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Arts
Criminal Justice (Honours)
Mount Royal University

Date Submitted: April 2023

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Abstract
Despite South Asians currently making up the biggest immigrant population in Canada, there are
few organizations that are accessible to them and adhere to their unique cultural needs. South
Asian immigrant women are highly vulnerable to domestic violence and face a number of
challenges when trying to navigate life in a new country, and victim services are rarely culturally
sensitive. This exploratory research project first examines the emerging body of literature
surrounding domestic violence in the South Asian community through an intersectional and
ethno-gender lens to understand the barriers to accessing help. Through the use of a resource
inventory, available domestic violence organizations that cater to both the mainstream population
and specifically to the South Asian population were analyzed in cities with the highest South
Asian populations to see if the cultural, linguistic, immigration, and settlement needs of South
Asian immigrant women were met. This project finds that although South Asian domestic
violence organizations were more accessible in terms of providing culturally and linguistically
appropriate services, they were lacking in availability in each of the cities examined and
provided fewer services such as shelters, transitional housing and legal services. South Asian
organizations were also not specifically focused on domestic violence services compared to
mainstream domestic violence organizations that had a targeted objective to cater to domestic
violence victims. Recommendations on how both South Asian organizations and mainstream
organizations can bridge the gaps in services are discussed.

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Dedication
I would like to dedicate this research project to all of the resilient South Asian
women who are facing abuse behind closed doors or have faced it previously. As a South Asian
woman myself, I wanted to bring awareness around this topic and although I was not able to
capture the first-hand experiences of the women, I hope that this project will get the conversation
going surrounding topics of domestic violence within both the South Asian community and
Canadian society.

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Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to thank my family and friends for always supporting me
and my education. Thank you to my parents, Taslim and Shamsun, for your unconditional love
and support in my academic journey, and for encouraging me to always pursue my dreams. I
would like to especially thank my dad, Taslim, for listening to my ideas and giving me new
insight on my project. In times when I felt like giving up, you were there to lend a hand.
I would like to express sincere gratitude to my honours supervisor, Dr. Harpreet Aulakh.
Thank you for pushing me to do this specific topic and providing guidance not only in this
project, but throughout the duration of my undergraduate degree. I could not have done this
without your endless support and patience. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Professor
Doug King who has always been very encouraging and motivating regarding students honours
projects. A special thank you to the rest of the Criminal Justice faculty for their continuous
guidance and for sharing their knowledge and passion for their work. Thank you for making my
time in this degree such an amazing experience.

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Table of Contents
Abstract............................................................................................................................................ 2
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................4
Accessibility of Domestic Violence Services in Canada for South Asian Immigrant Women........7
Research Objectives……………………………………………………………………….9
Methodology.................................................................................................................................. 10
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………….11
Theoretical Framework..................................................................................................................12
Intersectionality Theory………………………………………………………………….12
Ethno-Gender Approach…………………………………………………………………13
Literature Review...........................................................................................................................15
Barriers to Seeking Help……………………………………………………………...….15
Prevalence of Domestic Violence………………………………………………..16
Immigration/Settlement Issues…………………………………………………...18
Gaps in Services………………………………………………………………………….20
Mainstream Organizations……………………………………………………….20
South Asian Organizations………………………………………………………21
Findings and Discussion................................................................................................................ 22
Overview of Mainstream Organizations…………………………………………………23
Overview of South Asian Organizations………………………………………………...26
Recommendations..........................................................................................................................29

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Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….31
References......................................................................................................................................34
Appendix...……………………………………………………………………………………….40

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Accessibility of Domestic Violence Services in Canada for South Asian Immigrant Women
Domestic violence is a serious and prevalent issue in Canadian society. Domestic
violence, according to the World Health Organization, refers to abuse that can come in the forms
of emotional, physical, sexual, or controlling behaviour (World Health Organization, n.d). Every
individual, no matter the gender or racial group, can be a victim of domestic violence. However,
women are disproportionately represented when it comes to being victims of domestic violence.
According to the latest available data from Statistics Canada, rates of intimate partner violence in
2019 were more than 3.5 times higher among women than among men (536 versus 149 per
100,000 population, respectively) (Conroy, 2021). Furthermore, different groups experience
domestic violence in different ways and racial minorities have intersecting identities that extend
their vulnerability to domestic violence. Immigrant women are especially at risk of being
victims, due to the unique barriers they face while adjusting to life in a completely different
country. There is a constant struggle among immigrants to adapt to a new culture while still
maintaining traditional beliefs and practices. In Canada, 29% of visible minority women reported
experiencing some form of domestic violence in 2021 (Cotter, 2021). Although this number is
lower compared to the 47% of non-visible minority women that have experienced domestic
violence, visible minority women are more likely to feel anxious or shameful about reporting
incidents of domestic violence (Cotter, 2021). It also must be noted that community-based
studies have shown that intimate partner violence is higher among immigrant communities while
in population-based studies the rate is lower (Tabibi et al., 2018). Community-based research
involves studies where the community and research participants are actively involved in each
stage and work together to address certain challenges and needs (Boyd, 2014). Population-based
research is studies that are generalizable to the entire population, and not just the individuals in

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the study (Lieb, 2013). The inconsistencies could be due to measurement methods or access
(Tabibi et al., 2018) but may also be because community-based research is more personal and is
reflective of each individual's experiences.
Domestic violence can loosely be defined as a pattern in a relationship that is used to
demonstrate power and control over an individual (United Nations, n.d). Domestic violence can
come mainly in the forms of physical and emotional. Physical abuse involves hurting or
attempting to hurt someone by doing things such as hitting, punching, throwing objects or
forcing sexual acts. Emotional or verbal abuse includes continuous criticism, name-calling or
other verbal abuse, damaging a partner's relationship with their kids, or isolating a partner from
friends and family (United Nations, n.d). Domestic violence is not limited to these definitions
and can also take other forms. Although domestic violence is mentioned as intimate partner
violence in most of the literature and research, this project will use the term domestic violence.
This is due to the fact that domestic violence encompasses abuse faced by any family member
and not just an intimate partner. More importantly, South Asian families are collective and it is
common for parents, in-laws, and siblings to live in one household. There can be a cycle of abuse
in the family that can be initiated by people other than the victim's partner.
Due to the lack of conversation surrounding the South Asian population despite them
making up the largest immigrant group in Canada, this research project focuses specifically on
domestic violence faced by South Asian immigrant women. South Asia is both a geographical
and ethnocultural region and is composed of the countries Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. South Asians currently make up the largest
ethnic minority group in Canada, with roughly 2.6 million people (Statistics Canada, 2022a).
According to Statistics Canada, the immigrant population coming into Canada has been 62%

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Asian between 2016 and 2021, and the number one birthplace of immigrants was India (Statistics
Canada, 2022b). It is important to acknowledge that South Asia is made up of countries that have
a vast number of different cultures, languages, and traditions spanning across the region and it is
not the purpose of this project to identify them as one whole ethnic group. Furthermore, the aim
is not to show that South Asian women face domestic violence more frequently than non-South
Asians, but rather to highlight their barriers through an intersectional and ethno-gender lens and
how organizations can cater to victims more specifically. Intersectionality and ethno-gender
theories are both important when looking at domestic violence in immigrant communities. They
both examine intersecting identities such as race, ethnicity, gender, and immigration status and
how they increase vulnerability to domestic violence. Understanding the multi-dimensional and
complex circumstances of an individual help to respond to and resolve the issue at hand better
(Baker, Barreto & Etherington, 2015).
Research Objectives
There is currently a dark figure of crime surrounding the South Asian population as
domestic violence is a taboo subject in the South Asian community, and there are widely held
patriarchal beliefs and oppressive views that further increase the vulnerability of women and
make reporting difficult. Although South Asians make up the largest immigrant population in
Canada, there is a lack of community services in this country that meet their needs. South Asian
immigrant women who face domestic violence are rarely able to access victim services that are
culturally sensitive and are aware of their unique barriers. These barriers include patriarchal and
traditional, linguistic, financial, immigration/settlement and lack of access to formal support
(Ahmad et al., 2009; Aujla, 2013; Chaze & Medhekar, 2017; Chan, 2020; Choudry, 2001;
Dasgupta, 2000). These women also have to carry the burden of facing multiple oppressions

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from both the South Asian community and being a racialized minority group in Canada (Chaze
& Medhekar, 2017). There is not an abundance of existing research on the South Asian
population in Canada, especially South Asian domestic violence victims. They are more likely to
turn to general multicultural services rather than women’s shelters or victim services because of
the stigma and fear they face. A literature review and a comparative analysis between South
Asian organizations and mainstream organizations using a resource inventory were incorporated
to collect data. The aim is to determine if there are any inconsistencies in regard to the
organizations’ accessibility based on cultural, immigration and linguistic needs. The main
research question that this project will focus on is: To what extent are victim services in
Canada addressing the needs of South Asian immigrant women facing domestic violence?
Methodology
The objective of this research project was to determine the accessibility of domestic
violence services in Canada for South Asian immigrant women and if inconsistencies exist
between South Asian organizations and mainstream organizations. This project incorporates the
use of an exploratory research design as there has not been much existing research done on South
Asians and South Asian victim services in Canada. In the policy arena or applied to practice,
exploratory studies can also help establish research priorities and where resources should be
allocated (Streb, 2010). This exploratory research project incorporates multiple methods of data
collection, relying on an extensive literature review and the utilization of a resource inventory.
The existing literature on the topic identified cultural, linguistic, financial and
immigration needs as common themes. The Mount Royal University library database as well as
Google Scholar was used to thoroughly examine various scholarly articles to conduct
preliminary research in order to understand the prevalence of the issue. The main keywords used

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were: “domestic abuse/violence”, “immigrant women in Canada”, “South Asian immigrant
women”, “victim services for South Asian women”, “domestic violence services in Canada”,
“intersectionality and domestic violence” and “ethno-gender perspective”.
Previous research about South Asian domestic violence victims focused mainly on the
experiences of the women and what kind of support they looked for. However, past research only
minimally addressed what kind of services are actually offered in Canada and how to bridge the
gap between South Asian domestic violence organizations and mainstream domestic violence
organizations. In the literature review conducted, there was also a lack of information on South
Asian organizations. Using a resource inventory, domestic violence organizations were compiled
and compared based on programs, services, languages, and cultural awareness. Using Google
search, two types of organizations were looked at, organizations that specifically catered to South
Asian women who are victims of domestic violence and organizations that catered to victims of
domestic violence in general. The resource inventory was compiled by thoroughly searching
through the websites of the organizations and looking at any agency reports, statistics and
brochures. The organizations chosen (see Appendix) were from Calgary, Vancouver, Toronto,
Edmonton and Montreal due to the larger South Asian population in these areas. South Asians
currently make up 1,182,485 of the population in Toronto, 369,295 in Vancouver, 153,200 in
Calgary, 123,200 in Edmonton, and 121,260 in Montreal (Statistics Canada, 2022d). The
objective of this data collection was to determine how accessible each type of organization is to
South Asian immigrant women. Accessibility was determined by seeing if the delivery of the
programs and services met cultural and linguistic needs.
Limitations

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There were a few limitations in this research project that are important to address. This
research project relied solely on the use of secondary sources for data collection and was not able
to capture the first-hand experiences of South Asian immigrant women in this research due to the
limited scope of this undergraduate research project. Using the major metropolitan cities also
limits the ability to look at services available in smaller and more rural cities, and does not
account for the immigrants that live in those areas as increasing shares of recent immigrants are
settling out of Canada’s largest urban centres (Statistics Canada, 2022b). It was also limited in
that the organizations’ websites may not provide all available information on programs and
services, as well as cultural training and awareness, and there was no ability to determine that as
it would have required contacting the organizations directly. Lastly, since the resource inventory
was compiled using Google search, the ability to find all available organizations was limited.
Many domestic violence organizations may not be available online due to operating discretely or
locally as a support group because of limited resources.
Theoretical Framework
Intersectionality Theory
Intersectionality is a term coined by Kimberle Crenshaw and describes how hierarchies of
power and social systems based on race, ethnicity, gender, as well as immigration status, intersect
to create multiple oppressions for women (Erez & Harper, 2018). The theory of intersectionality
has been widely applied to the experiences of visible minority groups and challenges the systems
and institutions dominated by a white, upper-class perspective (Chan, 2020). An intersectional
approach is useful when addressing gender-based violence in order to see how race and gender
intersect with the hardships and burdens of immigration. It is able to capture the way interlocking
and intersecting oppressions move through immigrant communities to create particular

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vulnerabilities (Chan, 2020). Furthermore, immigrants are more likely to face racism and
discrimination, which adds another layer of oppression. Current discourses surrounding domestic
violence and immigrants tend to culturalize violence, meaning that it is seen as a cultural conflict
and not structural inequality (Tabibi et al., 2018). This further drives immigrant women from
seeking help and contributes to the intersecting forms of violence that they face (Tabibi et al.,
2018). Much of the literature has identified the barriers that South Asian immigrant women face,
but not how they intersect or create multiple oppressions. Most domestic violence victims face
similar traumas and oppressions, but South Asian immigrant women have the added factors of
being a woman of colour and a newcomer. Furthermore, the risk of domestic violence is further
increased because of the oppression that South Asian women get from both the South Asian
community and Canadian society. Due to domestic violence being a taboo subject and the widely
held patriarchal beliefs in the community, women can face disgrace from other South Asians
(Tonsing & Barn, 2017). On the other hand, women may face discrimination when they seek
help from non-South Asian organizations or from non-South Asian individuals due to cultural
blaming and stereotyping (Ahmadzai, 2015). Many mainstream domestic violence organizations
clump immigrant women together irrespective of their cultural differences and assume they have
similar needs. However, it is important to acknowledge that immigrant women are made up of
several ethnic groups that have different lived experiences.
Ethno-Gender Approach
The ethno-gender approach is very closely related to intersectionality theory but is more
specific in that it is based on the intersection of ethnicity and gender as a significant analytical
category in the discourse of domestic violence (Abraham, 1995). Developed in Abraham’s study
on domestic violence in the South Asian community in the United States, it aims to

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conceptualize a framework for analysis in an immigration and cultural context through two
dimensions. The first dimension is gender, which is described by Abraham as a social construct
that defines an individual's roles and expected behaviour patterns based on their biological sex.
The approach asserts how gender relations are socially constructed and cultural concerns are
framed at the individual, organizational, community and societal levels. Meanwhile, ethnicity has
two dimensions: one, as a cultural differentiation based on race, origin, history, and language as
well as distinct religious practices, particularized customs, beliefs and values and two, as a social
construct that is dynamic and manipulated in social interaction in situational contexts. Abraham
emphasizes that although those who face violence confront different oppressions based on
sexual, cultural, legal and economic grounds, the intersection of ethnicity and gender is
specifically focused on because these form an important basis for the social construction of
national culture in foreign places. Immigrant women have to cope with gender roles based on
patriarchal norms, which immigrant men don't have to face and thus ethnicity is the most
important marker that is tied to gender in the fabric of an immigrant women’s social identity.
Therefore, this approach is very important when looking at South Asian immigrant women
facing domestic violence, because they face oppression through multiple dimensions (Abraham,
1995).
The two approaches are important to analyze when addressing domestic violence in an
ethnic, gender, and immigration context. Although intersectionality is similar in that it examines
multiple layers of oppression, the ethno-gender approach goes deeper in examining how gender
and ethnicity intersect within the immigration context and how that plays a role in domestic
violence. It does not ignore or preclude other factors such as class but rather emphasizes the
importance of ethnicity and gender in addressing domestic violence (Abraham, 1995). Moreover,

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the ethno-gender perspective was developed in Abraham’s (1995) study and discussed in other
research papers (Merchant, 2000) in specific regard to domestic violence within the South Asian
community. This research project examines if the intersections of oppression are addressed by
mainstream domestic violence organizations. Courses of action and strategies can be developed
only if domestic violence organizations understand and address women’s positions based on their
gender, ethnicity and immigration status (Abraham, 1995).
Literature Review
A dark figure of crime surrounds existing literature on domestic violence within the
South Asian community. Domestic violence in general is highly unreported, with only 1 in 5
(19%) cases being reported to the police (Statistics Canada, 2022c). Due to challenges in seeking
help, there is little statistical evidence on incidences of domestic violence in the South Asian
community (Dasgupta, 2000). This also contributes to a lack of research on this topic and further
contributes to the silence in the South Asian community (Dasgupta, 2000). As family or marital
violence is considered private and personal, the dark figure is further increased. The exact
magnitude of the issue of domestic violence in the South Asian community is therefore
unknown. The emergence of South Asian women’s centres is also relatively new in research and
there is limited information on them, especially in Canada (Aujla, 2013). The literature review
conducted can help to shed light in more detail on why research is lacking on the South Asian
population and why women are hesitant to seek help. The literature review can be grouped into
two main themes: the barriers that prevent South Asian immigrant women from seeking help and
the current gaps in domestic violence services.
Barriers to Seeking Help

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Immigrant women experience difficulties in navigating an individualistic world with their
religious and cultural identities, and domestic violence adds another layer of challenges (Chan,
2020). There is no one factor that prevents South Asian women from seeking help for domestic
violence, but rather a combination of the barriers identified below interacting that makes it more
complex (Dasgupta, 2000). The main themes in the literature of barriers that prevent South Asian
immigrant women from seeking help are discussed below.
Prevalence of Domestic Violence
In order to better understand the specific barriers that South Asian immigrant women go
through, it is first important to understand the role of South Asian women in their communities
and gain insight into how the cycle of domestic violence is able to continue. There are many
causes of domestic violence, but in South Asian communities the major concern is the system of
patriarchy (Papp, 2010). Due to the existence of a hierarchical system of male domination, South
Asian family and marriage dynamics are rooted in patriarchy (Aujla, 2013). This hierarchy
places more importance on men in the household and results in the creation of gender roles and
patriarchal norms (Chaze & Medhekar, 2017; Ahmad et al., 2009). The men in the household are
typically the breadwinners, with the women in more traditional roles. Women are socialized to be
obedient and uphold respect for their husbands and in-laws (Choudry, 2001). This allows the
women to be controlled and creates an imbalance of power within the structure of the patriarchal
family (Aujla, 2013). This imbalance is further increased when immigrating to a new country.
Controlling the woman is much easier when she is left completely isolated and without the
support of her own family and friends.
South Asian families are predominantly collective so it is common for a married couple
to live with parents or in-laws. In South Asian culture, it is respectable and honourable to care

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for one’s parents (Choudry, 2001). When the married couple moves in with the husband's
parents, the bride is expected to adhere to the expectations and customs of her in-laws (Choudry,
2001). Furthermore, her place in the familial hierarchy is determined by her husband’s family
and oftentimes it can be at the very bottom. There can be added stressors when the parents or
siblings of the husband reinforce his behaviours and contribute to the chain of abuse. It can even
be common for other women in the family to encourage abuse toward the bride or participate in
it (Agnew, 1998). However, this is mainly due to the fact that the woman exercising power and
control over the bride has likely faced abuse herself (Aujla, 2013). This then leads to further
discouragement in seeking help from abuse, as it is something that women should just accept.
The patriarchal norms and family dynamics adopted in South Asian culture have become
normalized and have made it harder for South Asian women to break out of these beliefs.
Furthermore, immigration does not enhance a woman’s social status within her family and has
not influenced the South Asian community to rethink traditional gender norms. In fact, trying to
preserve culture and heritage while adapting to a new country complicates the dynamics of abuse
and further encourages the South Asian community to recreate traditional gender relations
(Dasgupta, 2000). Research has shown that traditional patriarchal power imbalances are
maintained more in South Asian immigrant families to ensure cultural continuity (Papp, 2010).
Honour and respect are important concepts in South Asian culture. There is pressure to
“maintain” the family name and keep the unity and sanctity of the family. Family disputes are
also kept within the family and rarely discussed with non-family members (Tonsing & Barn,
2017). The pressure to “save face”, however, usually falls on the women and it becomes their
responsibility to keep up the family's honour. Seeking help when being abused becomes
increasingly difficult due to the belief that it will taint the family image. In a study conducted by

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Ahmad et al. (2009) on South Asian women’s help-seeking behaviours, several women reported
that going to victim services was shameful and one even compared reporting incidents of
domestic violence to be worse than having a disease.
It is important to note that while understanding cultural differences helps to explain
domestic violence in South Asian communities to some extent, it is not the factor that actually
perpetuates violence. Domestic violence within South Asian communities is thought to be the
product of male domination and some research has indicated that patriarchy and culture are two
distinct concepts (George & Rashidi, 2014). The cultural explanation of violence assumes that
cultures are static and that minority groups are more sexist (Volpp, 2003). This culturalization of
violence fails to recognize the societal context of the violence that women face.
Immigration and Settlement Issues
Since this project is focused on South Asian immigrant women, it is important to discuss
how immigration can further increase the vulnerability of domestic violence and make reporting
a harder task. Immigration increases the risk of domestic violence because of the challenges and
acculturation stress that come along with it (Aujla, 2013; Chan, 2020; Chaze & Medhekar,
2017). The need to adjust to a different cultural climate would no doubt increase tensions in the
family and create stress between a married couple. Furthermore, women that have immigrated to
Canada are legally and financially dependent on their husbands or a man in their families, and
this makes it more difficult to seek help. In 2013, 54.1% of women entering Canada were under
the economic class as a spouse or dependant, and 34.3% were under the family class (Hudon,
2015). Women often become trapped because they risk their legal status, deportation, or losing
custody of their children (Erez & Harper, 2018). Immigrant women often do not know their
rights while living in Canada. Men can threaten and instil fear in women by threatening to have

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them deported or revoking sponsorship and permanent residency (Chan, 2020). It becomes even
more complicated when there are children involved because men can threaten to gain custody
and deport the mother back to their home country.
Women also have less of a chance to adapt to a new country than men (Ahmad et al.,
2009). South Asian women are more accustomed to staying at home, decreasing the chance to
socialize, learn English as well as about supports available (Ahmad et al., 2009). Lack of
knowledge about formal support and community services becomes increasingly limited, and
even further so when there is a lack of language-specific services. A high proportion of
immigrant women come to Canada without basic knowledge of English or French, especially
under sponsorship and family class (Hrick, 2012). A lack of language skills can multiply the fear
and isolation of women in Canada, as well as the ability to access social and community support
(Hrick, 2012). The feeling of dislocation and being away from family and friends can also lead to
stress and a higher risk of violence (Shankar, Das, & Atwal, 2013, as cited by Chan, 2020).
South Asian women lose their informal support when they immigrate here, and it further
prevents them from seeking help because of shame and unfamiliarity with new formal supports
(Garuge & Humphrey, 2009).
The findings discussed above help to shed light on the dark figure of domestic violence in
the South Asian community and why women are so reluctant to seek help. A study by Sultana et
al (2021) has demonstrated that the barriers to seeking help significantly outweigh the facilitators
to seeking help. To summarize, the key barriers to seeking help are identified as patriarchal and
cultural issues, fear of shame and dishonour, financial and economic dependency, language
barriers, immigration and deportation issues, and isolation. These must be understood because as
a result of these barriers, South Asian women develop certain and specific needs when seeking

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help. Those needs, in turn, can help to address the research objective of seeing what domestic
violence organizations are delivering services to the women.
Gaps in Victim Services
The literature review that was conducted divided victim services into two categories:
mainstream organizations and South Asian women’s organizations (Abraham, 19995; Agnew,
1998; Aujla, 2013; Dasgupta, 2000; Merchant, 2000).
Mainstream Organizations
Mainstream organizations are for women in general while South Asian women’s
organizations cater specifically to the needs of South Asian women. Garuge and Humphrey
(2009) indicated that more support programs are required to address the inadequacies of current
gaps in services so that it encourages more women to report their abuse. The existing literature
has identified several gaps in mainstream organizations when it comes to South Asian immigrant
women. It is already difficult for South Asian women to take the steps necessary to seek help, but
victim services are rarely able to meet their needs. Firstly, as discussed previously, there is a lack
of knowledge about available services. Domestic violence organizations use mainstream forms
of advertisement (Ahmadzai, 2015) that South Asian women may have difficulty understanding.
Furthermore, there is a lack of translation and language services, which not only prevents South
Asian women from seeking help but also makes it difficult to communicate with workers within
the organizations. Knowledge of traditions and customs, family and marriage dynamics, and
class and caste systems are not understood by most organizations that help victims of domestic
violence (Agnew, 1998). Although mainstream organizations may be accessible, they do not
specifically meet South Asian women’s needs and are not culturally appropriate (Raj &
Silverman, 2007). Many of the models and frameworks developed by mainstream organizations

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do not acknowledge that women may have multiple oppressions or capture the complexity of
immigrant women’s lives (Garuge & Humphrey, 2009). When South Asian immigrant women do
seek help, there is a risk of the workers developing harmful stereotypes. Many workers of
domestic violence services make assumptions about certain cultures which can often result in
“culture blaming” (Ahmadzai, 2015). Depicting domestic violence as a product of culture is very
harmful and overlooks other possibilities of violence. Staff are often not trained in intercultural
awareness and cultural sensitivity (Chan, 2020).
South Asian Women’s Organizations
Due to these gaps, many women are unlikely to seek formal help support such as medical
and legal assistance, as well as shelters and crisis lines (Aujla, 2013). Instead, they turn to
multicultural services or organizations dedicated to serving South Asians. South Asian Women’s
organizations emerged to provide services where South Asian culture is understood. Based on
Abraham’s (1995) findings, although each organization was developed to support South Asian
women, the ideologies of the organizations can be divided into three categories. The first is
value-oriented ideology, which is when the organization has core values that are explicit and
specifically focus on ending violence against women. Diffused ideology is when the organization
has values that are more loosely dispersed and one central value does not determine the goals of
the organization. The last is unspecified idealogy, which has an unstructured set of values and no
specific goal (Abraham, 1995). When South Asian organizations provided services that meet the
ethnic, cultural and language needs of South Asian women, they found that there was an increase
in the number of clients that were served (Merchant, 2000). However, South Asian organizations
face their own share of challenges. Most SAWO’s have started as grassroots/volunteer-driven
organizations and are nonprofit (Dasgupta, 2000, Merchant, 2000). Not only do they lack

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funding, but they are forced to work away from their own communities because of their
controversial missions (Dasgupta, 2000). As a result, workers from these organizations may not
have the resources to “update their knowledge about various aspects of domestic violence,
contemporary intervention methods, laws that affect immigrant women, advancements in
research and available resources that help them and their families'' (Dasgupta, 2000, p. 11).
Dasgupta (2000) also notes that the seclusion and lack of training, funding and resources
eventually evolve into an uneven quality of services. In Merchant’s (2000) study, many service
providers of South Asian women’s organizations acknowledged that they were working with
limited resources and funding, which makes it difficult to offer comprehensive services and
accommodate the growing number of immigrant women.
It is clear that each type of organization has its limitations when providing services to
South Asian immigrant women. The literature review conducted on both types of organizations
helps to establish the research objectives. Acknowledging and knowing the gaps in each type of
organization can assist in providing a basis for the findings of this research project, as the aim is
to find out if there are inconsistencies in the current delivery of domestic violence services for
South Asian immigrant women in Canada.
Findings and Discussion
The aim of this research project was to determine the accessibility of victim services for
South Asian immigrant women who are facing domestic violence. Upon initial comparison of the
resource inventory between South Asian women’s organizations and mainstream domestic
violence organizations, this study finds that each type of organization has a different objective
and targets different populations when it comes to assisting victims of domestic violence.
Mainstream organizations were found to be targeted specifically at victims of domestic violence

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while South Asian organizations were composed of multicultural services that were for women
in general. The original plan of the study was to focus more on the accessibility of services, but it
was also found that there are limited organizations for South Asian immigrant women despite the
fact that this project focused on cities with the largest South Asian populations. Furthermore,
most South Asian women’s organizations were located in Ontario and some cities in the province
had multiple South Asian organizations. The four other major metropolitan cities that were
included in this study each only had one South Asian women’s organization available online that
had services dedicated to assisting domestic violence victims. It should also be noted that most
South Asian women’s organizations in Vancouver did not have formal websites and only had
Facebook pages, which made it difficult to sift through and find what services the organizations
offered. Thus, mainstream organizations are more available for domestic violence victims than
South Asian organizations. The findings of each organization's programs, services and objectives
are discussed below.
Overview of Mainstream Service Organizations
The mainstream organizations that were researched generally had a larger goal when it
came to assisting domestic violence victims. Mainstream organizations had specific
programming to help women in escaping their abusive situations and had transitional
housing/shelters connected directly to the organizations. Most of them also offered legal aid
within the organization and did not need referrals to outside legal sources. This is helpful in that
it can more easily and quickly assist women whose immigration status is threatened or at risk.
Their targeted audiences are specifically domestic violence victims and this is evident in their
purpose statements. Purpose statements highlight and summarize the aims, goals and missions of

24

an organization. For example, the websites of Family Service Toronto and Battered Women’s
Support Services in Vancouver state:

“.. to promote non-violence and to work towards the elimination of violence against women”
-Family Service Toronto (n.d)

“Provides education, advocacy, and support services to assist all victims and survivors in our
aim to work towards the elimination of gender-based violence and to work from a feminist
perspective that promotes gender equity”
-Battered Women’s Support Services (n.d)

Out of all of the mainstream organizations examined, only one had extensive information
on how they address domestic violence through an intersectional approach. Most of them had
only briefly addressed it in their purpose statements or annual reports. Battered Women’s
Support Services heavily emphasized the importance of intersectionality and understanding that
not all women face domestic violence the same way. They have an educative program called the
Gender Equity Learning and Knowledge Exchange that seeks to “mobilize community-based
experiences and evidence-informed resources from an intersectional, anti-oppressive, feminist
and critical race theory, analysis and practice” (Battered Women’s Support Services, n.d). They
hold multiple volunteer training sessions for those interested in obtaining the necessary skills to
end gender-based violence (Battered Women’s Support Services, n.d).
Despite aiming to be inclusive of all victims of domestic violence, mainstream
organizations were not found to be culturally appropriate or accessible for South Asian

25

immigrant women. Very few of the organizations had additional support or programming for
immigrant women in general and of each mainstream organization that was looked at, only one
of them had a separate program for South Asians that were facing family and partner violence.
Victim Services of Peel in Brampton has a program called The South Asian Family Enrichment,
which targets members of South Asian families who are caught in the cycle of family violence
(Victim Services of Peel, n.d). They collaborate with multicultural services within ethno-specific
communities to help end violence within families (Victim Services of Peel, n.d). Some
organizations did not have the languages they had for translation and interpretation services
listed on their websites or brochures so it was difficult to determine which languages they had
available. The organizations that did have them listed did not encompass all South Asian
languages and interpreters and translators were available, but not readily. Chan (2020) notes that
this is common for many mainstream organizations because of funding arrangements, which
leave immigrant women to turn to informal support or multicultural organizations. Another
finding was that most domestic violence organizations did not have support groups that could
help women find a sense of belonging or community. They solely focused on the violence that
women faced and how they could overcome it, but not what comes after. Since isolation is one of
the biggest barriers to seeking help from domestic violence, community and group support is
important.
The findings above suggest that mainstream organizations are not fully accessible to
South Asian immigrant women. Many of the organizations did not have separate programming
for immigrants, and only one organization had separate programming for South Asian victims of
violence. As Agnew (1998) noted, knowledge of South Asian traditions and customs as well as
family dynamics are not understood by mainstream organizations. This is why having separate

26

programming for South Asians is important. They also have minimal translation and
interpretation services which can turn South Asian women away from seeking help and
communicating effectively with caseworkers. This is particularly harmful because most
immigrant women do not have basic knowledge of English or French (Hrick, 2012). Moreover,
the websites had a lack of information on how they train their staff on cultural sensitivity and
awareness. The accessibility and diversity of services for South Asian immigrant women are
marginal at best.
Overview of South Asian Women’s Organizations
As described in Abraham’s (1995) studies, there exist three ideologies when it comes to
an organization's goals and objectives. One of the ideologies was described as diffused
ideologies as defined in the literature review, where an organization has more dispersed values
and one central value does not describe the entire organization. The South Asian organizations in
Canada that were examined for this research project can best be described to fall within this
ideology. It was found that despite having specific programming for domestic violence victims,
South Asian women’s organizations in Canada are more targeted toward the general South Asian
women and are known for providing multicultural services. Unlike mainstream organizations,
most South Asian organizations did not specifically target victims of domestic violence but
rather offer a wide range of services that are able to encompass all South Asian women and not
just victims. A few of them also offer their services to men that are both victims and perpetrators
of domestic violence as well as families and children. One of the main observations from this
finding is that due to the stigma and shame surrounding the taboo subject of domestic violence,
many South Asian organizations opt to focus on providing multicultural services instead of just
focusing on domestic violence services. Each organization that was looked at did not use the

27

word violence or battered in their names and few used it in their purpose statements. The purpose
statements of South Asian organizations from the South Asian Women’s Centre in Toronto and
South Asian Women’s Community Centre in Montreal are provided below:

“To increase self-awareness of South Asian Women and to empower women to develop their
social and cultural potential. The Centre is a place where South Asian Women of all backgrounds
and ages can access a variety of programs and services. We strive to provide an environment
where women can work together to promote their well-being.”
-South Asian Women’s Centre (n.d)

“We offer a wide range of services, such as settlement programs for refugees and new
immigrants, language classes, education on individual rights, support for survivors and victims
of violence, and high school programs”
-South Asian Women’s Community Centre (n.d)

Despite targeting a more general audience, the South Asian organizations that were
analyzed offered services for issues that are specific to the South Asian community. They were
more culturally aware and had knowledge of South Asian cultural aspects and concepts such as
honour killings, dowries, and forced marriages. Each organization was found to have
caseworkers of South Asian heritage, which would make it easier for them to connect with
clients who are similar to them. This supports Dasgupta’s (2000) study, in which she reported
that South Asian women feel as if South Asian organizations are informal supports and like
“insiders”, which makes them feel safer to disclose abuse, and the culturally familiar feeling of

28

the agency is able to outweigh any discomfort. After analysis of agency reports, the
organizations also had more of an idea of how violence is perpetuated in the South Asian
community and the dynamics of South Asian marriages and families. Something that stood out
while searching through the website of the South Asian Women’s Centre in Toronto was that
they had a training toolkit for staff and clients as well as the general public aimed at educating
people on honour-based violence and violence perpetuated in the South Asian community. The
toolkit emphasized raising awareness of gender-based violence as well as the fact that the root of
violence is in power, control and patriarchy and not a byproduct of culture (South Asian
Women’s Centre, 2016, p. 8). The organizations also emphasized the importance of
intersectionality in their work. As described in the South Asian Women’s Centre training toolkit,
“survivors’ experience with violence is influenced by their positionality and intersectionality,
which can lie within certain cultural and socioeconomic parameters” (South Asian Women’s
Cente, 2016, p. 8). The South Asian organizations were seen to be raising awareness within the
community and focusing on a culturally-centred approach to prevent violence. For example, the
Indo-Canadian Womens Association holds regular workshops to awareness of certain topics
surrounding the South Asian community. One of the main goals of the South Asian organizations
was to provide a sense of community and belonging for South Asian immigrant women. Almost
all of the organizations emphasized mental health and well-being, as well as how to prevent
isolation and loneliness. They had support and counselling groups as well as activities such as
the sewing program at the South Asian Women’s Centre.
Due to a lack of funding and resources, the organizations depended largely on referrals to
help women leave their abusive situations. None of the organizations that were included in the
resource inventory had transitional housing or shelters. This poses an issue because South Asian

29

women may not feel comfortable staying at housing or a shelter that does not have the same
cultural environment where they first got help. A participant in Ahmadzai’s (2015) study noted
that “they (other women) look at them weird, especially if they are wearing their ethnic dress, or
if they cook things differently, they don’t eat certain things”. They also did not have direct legal
aid, which deters the ability to provide information about immigration rights, status or laws
quickly, as well as help to press charges or leave the abusive relationship. This suggests that
there is still a lack of funding and resources allocated to South Asian Women’s organizations, as
explained in Dasgupta’s (2000) study.
Recommendations
While South Asian organizations are more accessible for South Asian immigrant women
based on culture, language, and sense of community, they are lacking in availability in terms of
the number of organizations. Furthermore, they do not have direct housing/shelters or legal aid
and depend more on referrals to mainstream domestic violence organizations. Based on the
findings discussed above, a true collaboration between mainstream domestic violence
organizations and South Asian organizations must exist. Mainstream organizations have become
more culturally diverse and sensitive but they still present barriers to South Asian immigrant
women. On the other hand, South Asian organizations lack the funding and resources to fully
assist domestic violence victims. If there is to be genuine, systematic change, there must first be
micro-level changes within both organizations (Ahmadzai, 2015). Micro-level changes are
immediate interventions that would make the experiences of women facing domestic violence
easier (Ahmadzai, 2015). Some of the key findings and recommendations from the literature
review and resource inventory analysis are:

30

● Communication between mainstream organizations and South Asian organizations to
ensure that mainstream organizations are taught South Asian concepts and practices, as
well as increasing language capacity so that they can be more culturally competent
(Aujla, 2013). On the other hand, South Asian organizations can benefit from mainstream
organizations by having a bigger audience to raise awareness and educate on domestic
violence in the South Asian community.
● Development of more support groups and culturally and linguistically appropriate
counselling services to help women find a sense of belonging and community. This
means creating a safe space where women can express themselves and build relationships
with other women who have faced violence.
● Hiring more South Asian workers in mainstream organizations so that clients can feel
connected and comfortable about disclosing abuse.
● Development of more South Asian Women’s centres in Canadian cities where the South
Asian population is more widely dispersed.
● Development of transitional housing/shelters specifically for immigrant and South Asian
women, and for mainstream housing and shelters to be cooperative of cultural and
religious accommodations.
● Availability of legal services and clinics within South Asian organizations for more
immediate access to information regarding immigration issues or criminal matters. Legal
services should be provided in a language that the women feel comfortable in.
● Comprehensive training to understand the underlying factors of abuse for staff working in
mainstream organizations to alleviate cultural blaming and discrimination.

31

● Access to South Asian translators and interpreters in mainstream organizations.
Interpreters should also be trained in intersectionality and ethno-gender perspective
because although women are getting support does not mean they are getting appropriate
information.
● Advertising for domestic violence organizations that are available in South Asian
languages to ensure that women know how exactly to access support and determine the
types of services available to them.
● Mandatory training for South Asian immigrants in cultural centres or multicultural
organizations to learn about their immigration rights and Canadian laws so that they are
informed about what to do if they need to leave an abusive situation.
● Empowering and educating South Asian women in both types of organizations to speak
up about their violence through the use of media and campaigns, in areas where South
Asians mostly reside. Education should also target men and elders in the community who
perpetuate violence.
Conclusion
Although South Asians make up the largest visible minority group in Canada, they
continue to be invisible in domestic violence discourse. As more South Asian immigrants settle
in Canada, it is incredibly important to understand and analyze the issues that they face. This
research project explored the accessibility of domestic violence services for South Asian
immigrant women through an intersectional and ethno-gender perspective. Through the literature
review, the main barriers to seeking help were identified as patriarchal and traditional beliefs,
linguistic barriers, shame and stigma surrounding domestic violence, fear of loss of immigration
status, and lack of support and isolation. The South Asian community still holds beliefs that

32

domestic violence is considered a very private matter, and something that should be kept within
the family. The pressure to maintain these traditional beliefs while settling down in a new
country in combination with the other factors makes it extremely difficult for immigrant women
to report instances of violence and causes them to stay in abusive relationships for longer periods
of time (Chan, 2020).
If South Asian women do get the courage to report instances of abuse, their needs are not
met through current domestic violence services. Through the use of a resource inventory, it was
found that although mainstream organizations are more available, they lack accessibility in terms
of providing culturally and linguistically appropriate services. This lack of care and support
hinders South Asian women’s ability to seek help (Aujla, 2020). South Asian organizations
provide better support to their clients because of their knowledge of South Asian culture and the
ability to create a more comfortable environment. However, South Asian organizations are not
adequately equipped to support South Asian immigrant women due to a lack of formal resources
and funding. With barriers to seeking help and current gaps in services, South Asian immigrant
women face multi-faceted layers of oppression that are at the institutional and societal levels. In
order to fill in the gaps in each type of organization, collaboration and communication between
them should exist.
Although focusing on the responses and actions taken to combat domestic violence is
necessary, awareness and advocacy of this topic are equally as important both within the South
Asian community and Canadian society. Within the South Asian population, a cycle of abuse and
trauma can be easy to uphold if the individuals within the community don’t raise their voices and
receive education on the harmful effects of hierarchical and patriarchal belief systems. Cultural
and religious leaders, as well as those who run South Asian organizations, should work together

33

to erase the stigma surrounding domestic violence (George & Rashidi, 2014; Ahmad et al. 2009).
For example, an initiative called PARIVAAR was developed in 2010 in Edmonton for
collaboration between service providers, and religious and community leaders to change the way
domestic violence is perceived in the South Asian community (Aujla, 2020). These initiatives
can allow for collaboration and partnerships between mainstream organizations and South Asian
organizations to continue providing community knowledge and safety for South Asian
immigrant women (Aujla, 2020). On the other hand, mainstream organizations need to make sure
they are educating themselves on the intersectional challenges that immigrant women go through
and moving away from discriminatory attitudes and practices such as cultural blaming. There
should be a shift in the subject of domestic violence being a byproduct of culture to that of
greater societal factors, and recognizing this is a necessity when assisting victims of domestic
violence. This would encourage more women to come forward with their experiences of violence
and ensure that they feel comfortable and safe when approaching domestic violence support and
resources. Domestic violence is an everyday, lived experience of many South Asian immigrant
women and the first step in eliminating it is breaking down the intersectional, multi-layer barriers
to seeking help.

34

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Appendix
Organizations included in Resource Inventory
Mainstream Organizations

South Asian Organizations

Family Service Toronto, Toronto

South Asian Women’s Centre, Toronto

Victim Services of Peel, Brampton

South Asian Community Health Services,
Brampton

Sagesse, Calgary

Canadian Pakistani Support Group
Association, Calgary

The Today’s Centre, Edmonton

Indo Canadian Women’s Association,
Edmonton

Women’s Centre of Montreal, Montreal

South Asian Women’s Community Centre,
Montreal

Battered Women’s Support Services,
Vancouver

India Mahila Association, Vancouver