Agronomy Research 18(S2), 1220–1234, 2020
https://doi.org/10.15159/AR.20.109

A sustainable approach to boosting liquid biofuels production
from second generation biomass resources in West Africa
I.S. Dunmade1,*, E. Akinlabi2 and M. Daramola3
1

Mount Royal University, Calgary, Faculty of Science & Technology, Department of
Environmental Science, 4825 Mount Royal Gate SW, Calgary T3K 0C3, Canada
2
University of Johannesburg, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical
Engineering Science, PO Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, Johannesburg, South Africa
3
University of Witwatersrand, School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering,
Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
*
Correspondence: idunmade@mtroyal.ca
Abstract. West African region has abundant second generation biomass resources consisting of
agricultural residues, forest resources; municipal solid wastes; and animal wastes that could be
harnessed to produce liquid biofuels. A number of countries in the region have developed energy
policies to foster bioenergy production. Despite the national intent expressed in various countries’
bioenergy policies, development of bioenergy facilities and liquid biofuels production from
cellulosic sources in the region are essentially at the research and development stage. This study,
through comprehensive reviews of various bioenergy policies, news reports, related journal
articles and development reports, examined the reasons for the delay in the development of biorefineries in the region. The study then articulated feasible solutions to address the challenges.
Among the discovered causes of the delay are over-dependence on fossil fuels and defective
energy policy implementation manifesting in the form of lack of continuity. Other issues include
poor private sector’s involvement and inadequate incentives necessary for private investors’
participation. This study concludes that boosting liquid biofuels production in West Africa would
require public-private collaboration that is built from bottom-up. Successful bioenergy facilities’
development in the region would need to be community level scaled rather than being mega
projects, and it would need to involve participation of communities as collaborators. In addition,
to ensure sustainable production, it would be necessary to incorporate public enlightenment, and
grant tax incentives to investors. Moreover, it would need to include a sustainable technology
training package that would empower local engineers and technicians to not only develop
bioenergy facilities that are suitable for the locality but also to maintain and improve them.
Furthermore, Continuity and consistency in policy implementation and financing prioritization
are essential to boosting liquid biofuel production in the West African region and to enable West
African region to occupy its rightful place in the global bioeconomy.
Key words: bioeconomy, bioenergy, liquid biofuels, sustainability, West Africa.

INTRODUCTION
There is an increasing demand for transition from fossil fuel based energy source
to biofuels. The clamor for the change is essentially driven by three main factors,
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namely: 1) Climate change trigger by greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel
combustion; 2) impending depletion of natural resources, especially the fossil fuels being
non-renewable natural resources, and 3) an increased worldwide population with
increasing need for energy supply. Other important reasons while transitioning to
advanced biofuel production and use include the need to eliminate various negative
consequences of using solid biofuels. For example, quoting World Health Organization,
Ndiaye (2018), stated that ‘over 4 million people die prematurely from illness
attributable to the household pollution from cooking with solid fuels’. He further stated
that ‘More than 50% of premature deaths due to pneumonia among children under 5 are
caused by the particulate matter (soot) inhaled from household air pollution’. There is
therefore a need for the development of advanced biofuel technologies to produce liquid
biofuels. Production of liquid biofuels from second generation biomass have been hailed
as a viable renewable energy source that would not only enable us to satisfy the
increasing energy demand, it is also seen as a carbon-neutral source of energy that would
enable us reduce the impending climate change danger. Such endeavor is also expected
to help eliminate or at least reduce other negative consequences of using petroleum
products and solid biofuels. Second generation biomass sources of liquid biofuel
production are derived from cellulosic sources such as forest and agricultural residues,
and market/household organic wastes (Jokiniemi & Ahokas, 2013).
Second generation biomass availability in West Africa
The West African region is blessed with abundant cellulosic biomass resources.
That is why according to Ndiaye (2018), ‘Wood accounts for more than 80% of all
primary energy in West African
countries’. The West African regional
vegetation zones range from the
dense tropical forest in the south to
the savanna grassland in the north
(Fig. 1). The amount of residues
from harvesting and processing these
abundant woody resources in the
form of logging and saw-milling are
Figure 1. West African vegetation zones.
enormous and they are readily
Source:https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/sites/default/
available for use as feedstock for the
files/inlineimages/160823_Climate _zones.jpg
production of liquid biofuels.
Liquid biofuels and necessity to boost production of liquid biofuels
All over the world, due to its being a carbon-neutral source of energy, there is an
increasing demand from liquid biofuels. Consequently, there is also an increasing
emphasis on the production of liquid biofuels, especially from cellulosic sources rather
than from first generation biomass sources like grains and other food crops. While Brazil
and the USA are the largest producers of liquid biofuels, many other countries like China
and India have developed aggressive programs of liquid biofuels production. However,
the production of liquid biofuels in the West African region is still at an infancy stage.
Most of the countries in the region depend mainly on petroleum fuels for transportation,
for cooking and for electric energy generation. Apart from seasonal scarcity of the
petroleum fuels in some countries, the use of fossil fuels is causing a lot of environmental
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pollution. It is thus necessary that having been endowed with abundant sources of
lignocellulossic biomass, the region has a lot to benefit by pursuing aggressive liquid
biofuel production and utilization like other regions of the world (van Zyl, 2011).
The aim of this paper was to review the status of liquid biofuels production in West
Africa, to articulate the driving factors and challenges to its abundant production in the
region, and to provide some insights on how to boost sustainable production of liquid
biofuels in the region.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The methodology of this study involved a comprehensive review of bioenergy
literature and reports to identify commitments made by a number of West African
countries and by the Economic community of West African States to the development
of bioenergy sector, especially the production of liquid biofuels. The study also reviewed
various liquid biofuels production initiatives in the region with the aim of articulating
the driving motivations behind the investments and various sources of support received.
The levels of success of the initiatives, encountered development challenges as well as
other limiting factors were also evaluated. Steps were then taken to articulate what can
be done to remove the obstacles to the development of bioenergy in the region. Various
models of possible pathways to boost liquid biofuels production in the region were then
developed and analyzed before drawing conclusion on sustainable approach to boosting
liquid biofuels in West Africa.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section provides the outcomes of our review on global trends in the production
of liquid biofuels. We also provided a summary of liquid biofuel production policies of
a number of countries in the region and of ECOWAS. Furthermore, we articulated
various liquid biofuel production initiatives in the region. We also discussed various
challenges of producing liquid biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass, and concerns
raised regarding potential environmental and socio-economic impacts of bioenergy
development in West Africa. We then presented a model of possible pathways to boosting
liquid biofuels and the requisite enabling infrastructure in a way that the problems are
appropriately addressed. Finally, we analyzed the potential impacts of implementing the
framework in achieving some sustainable development goals in West Africa.
Liquid biofuels production methods
Bioethanol, biodiesel and bio-oil are the three liquid biofuels of interests. Methods
of processing lignocellulosic biomass to liquid biofuels can be divided into two
categories, namely: biochemical processes and thermochemical processes. Biochemical
methods are used for the production of biogas, bioethanol and biodiesel from
lignocellulosic biomass while thermochemical methods are used to convert biomass to
bio-oil. Enzymatic fermentation method is the most commonly used biochemical
method. Biochemical methods generally consist of three main steps, namely: pretreatment, enzymatic pyrolysis and fermentation. Torrefaction, thermal liquefaction,
pyrolysis and gasification are the common thermochemical methods. Bio-oils are the
most preferred pyrolysis fuel types for transportation purpose while biochar and flue
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gases are pyrolysis by-products produced along with bio-oil. Bio-oils are in most cases
unsuitable for direct use, they often require refining and further processing steps just like
in petroleum refineries. There has been a lot of scholarly works on the liquid biofuels,
biomass feedstocks and the bioprocessing methods. This review is focused on boosting
liquid biofuels, readers are directed to the following literatures for further details on
biofuels production methods: Balat et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2010; Panwara et al., 2012;
Yılmaz & Selim, 2013; Kumar et al., 2015, and Kan et al., 2016.
Global trends in the production of liquid biofuels
The production and use of liquid biofuels is growing globally. According to WBA
(2019), ‘In 2017, 138 billion litres of biofuels were produced including bioethanol,
biodiesel, HVO (Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil) etc’. It accounts for about 3% of the
transport sector energy use in 2017. IRENA (2020), projected that liquid biofuels in the
form of ethanol and biodiesel could account for 10% of transport sector energy use by
2030. The reason for the growth is due to the many advantages of biofuels as carbon
neutral alternatives to fossil fuels, its renewability, and its promotion of rural
development (von Maltitz et al., 2009; Ghobadian, 2012; Oyedepo et al., 2019). The
global change from fossil fuels to biofuels is led by the EU with its legislative support
which required member countries to ensure the blend of conventional fossil fuels with a
certain percentage of bioethanol. Many countries, including the US, Brazil, China and
India have since followed suite (Ghobadian, 2012; IEA, 2019a). Global production of
biofuels in 2018 was 154 billion litres. Total biofuel output is forecast to increase 25%
by 2024. According to the report, China is set to have the largest biofuel production
growth of any country while the United States and Brazil still provide two-thirds of total
biofuel production in 2024. However, biofuel production in the United States and EU
member states is not on track to meet the projected 2030 demand (IEA, 2019a and 2019b;
Nyström, 2019).
West Africa’s biofuels production potentials
West Africa has a lot of potential for significant contribution to global biofuels
production as it is bequeathed with abundant biofuels feedstocks, especially from
lignocellulosic sources. Onuoha (2010), Ishola et al. (2013); Iye & Bilsborrow (2013);
Simonyan & Fasina (2013), Ben-Iwo et al. (2016), Adewuyi (2020), and Gnansounou et
al. (2020) provided extensive reviews of various types of biomass resources and biofuels
production potentials in Nigeria. Baumert et al. (2018) and Bridge builders (2019)
discussed the growing of Jatropha and its use for biofuel production systems of Burkina
Faso. According to Dianka (2012), ’West African region has a large potential to become
a leading producer of many types of biofuels given the availability of raw materials,
climate conditions, land availability and production costs’. He further opined that ‘the
economical and political stability of the Union favour the development of a common
biofuels market that can become a substantial exporter of biofuels to the EU’. Table 1
shows the projected biofuels production potentials from some West African countries.
Simonyan and Fasina (2013) also stated that ‘Nigeria is capable of producing 2.01 EJ
(47.97 MTOE) of energy from the 168.49 million tonnes of agricultural residues and
wastes that can potentially be generated in a year.’ In another discuss, Onuoha (2010)
indicated that Nigeria has the capacity to produce 61 million tonnes of animal waste per
year; 83 million tonnes of crop residue per year, and 13,071,464 hectares of forest land
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to produce woody biomass. In another report, quoting Iwayemi (2008), Dunmade (2017)
stated that Nigerian biomass endowment stands at 144 million tonnes per year, a large
percentage of which can be harnessed for energy production. Tables 1a and 1b show the
projected amount of residues for each crop from some West African countries by 2050.
Table 1a. Total amount of residues for each crop and country in 2050 (Gnansounou et al., 2020)
Residues in 2050 (tons year-1)
Countries
Banana
Cassava
Maize
Oil palm fruit
Benin
9,234
819,256
7,685.674
3,077.327
Burkina Faso
973
8,918.250
Cote d'Ivoire
129,339
501,689
3,715.272
10,684.203
Gambia
2,419
166,548
242,021
Ghana
33,892
3,119,461
11,614,328
11,937,521
Guinea
93,332
249,527
3,771,572
4,045,498
Liberia
56,800
117,975
1,102,467
Mali
104,809
10,079
9,656,257
Niger
30,143
60,527
Nigeria
9,918,856
65,349,629
30,153,631
Senegal
15,077
35,143
1,304,100
971,578
Sierra Leone
810,805
272,168
1,347,265
Togo
10,652
212,098
4,425,680
584,178
Total
453,135
15,828,423
116,940,006
64,145,689
Table 1b. Total amount of residues for each crop and country in 2050 (Gnansounou et al., 2020)
Residues in 2050 (tons year-1)
Countries
Rice
Cotton
Sorghum
Soybeans
Sugarcane
Benin
1,065,856
1,472,230
989,713
59,640
30,021
Burkina Faso
1,674,142
2,827,218
14,391,713
93,638
374,608
Cote d'Ivoire
902,837
1,387,922
366,398
3,412
1,620,026
Gambia
35,543
2,949
207,549
Ghana
348,962
74,947
2,208,393
121,572
Guinea
1,195,235
228,402
284,269
115,888
Liberia
167,959
11,262
119,738
Mali
1,874,119
2,628,206
9,565,583
13,338
295,313
Niger
11,585
48,853
9,418,996
106,378
Nigeria
3,061,685
1,631,367
45,238,144
2,448,622
1,544,025
Senegal
452,933
186,605
880,192
879,523
Sierra Leone
747,960
266,739
37,117
Togo
72,804
493,664
2,186,686
14,621
Total
11,611,622
10,982,362
86,004,374
2,644,424
5,244,209

Table 2 shows the projected amount of cellulose, hemicellusoe, and lignin that
could be produced by each country by 2050 while Table 3 shows the West African
biofuels production potentials and sources. Within the last two decades, oilpalm and
jathropa have gained a lot of attention as energy crops of focus for biofuels production
(Torrey, 2010). Looking at the foregoing data, it is clear that West African region has a
great potential to make significant contribution to global liquid biofuels production.

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Table 2. Amount of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin available in the selected WA area by
2050 considering that 50%residues were left on the field. Energy content in the selected biomass
(Gnansounou et al., 2020)
Cellulose
Hemicellulose
Lignin
Total Energy content
Countries
(tons year-1)
(tons year-1)
(tons year-1)
(GJ year-1)
Benin
2,435,313
1,463,603
1,341,186
93,989,852
Burkina Faso
4,602,408
2,882,498
2,164,508
172,284,720
Cote d'Ivoire
3,259,012
1,997,339
1,904,670
126,688,100
Gambia
106,951
67,504
54,160
4,000,678
Ghana
4,899,719
3,009,908
2,692,610
190,514,168
Guinea
1,484,255
911,400
828,349
60,235,161
Liberia
260,013
160,925
153,594
10,195,012
Mali
3,593,196
2,223,739
1,742,045
135,486,934
Niger
1,671,345
1,104,608
660,506
60,474,290
Nigeria
25,635,444
16,035,878
12,817,400
981,005,286
Senegal
731,502
469,398
384,690
27,583,543
Sierra Leone
480,114
290,291
274,929
19,140,877
Togo
1,262,812
781,084
629,165
47,632,777
Table 3. West African biofuels production potentials and sources (Dianka, 2012)
Country
Biofuel type production potential and sources
Benin
20,000 m3 year-1 ethanol based on cassava
Burkina Faso
20,000 m3 year-1 ethanol based on sugarcane
Ivory Coast
19,000 m3 year-1 ethanol based on molasses
Guinea-Bissau
~10,000 m3 year-1 ethanol based on cashew tree apples
Mali
18,000 m3 year-1 ethanol based on molasses
Niger
Biodiesel based on jatropha
Senegal
15,000 m3 year-1 ethanol based on molasses
Togo
10,000 m3 year-1 biodiesel based on jatropha
Total
Ethanol (93,000 m3 year-1) and biodiesel (20,000 m3 year-1)

Status of liquid biofuels production in West Africa
ECOWAS and its member countries, with the support of their partners, have been
working hard to boost the production of liquid biofuels as a component of its regional
policy on renewable energy. ECOWAS Renewable Energy Policy (EREP) and ECOWAS
Energy Efficiency Policy (EEEP) policies outline Renewable Energy and Energy
Efficiency targets to be achieved by ECOWAS countries by 2030. Auth and Musolino
(2014) stated that, ‘he goals of the policies correspond precisely to the poles of the UN
Secretary General’s initiative on Sustainable Energy for All and have led to new
developments in the renewable energy and energy efficiency sectors throughout the
region’. FAO (2019) also hinted that 41 countries out of the 54 African countries
mentioned in their policies that they will implement at least one modern bioenergy
measure to mitigate their GHG emissions. Liquid biofuels and biogas are among the top
five policies and measures that African countries are focusing on to combat GHG
emissions (ECOWAS, 2013; Dunmade, 2017; IEA, 2019a and 2019b).

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In West Africa, fourteen countries indicated the need to develop modern bioenergy
to mitigate their GHG emissions. Focusing on Liquid biofuels, ECOWAS member
countries adopted biofuel-blending targets of 5 percent for ethanol and biodiesel in 2013
and a Bioenergy Strategy in 2016. Majority of the ECOWAS countries are focusing on
liquid biofuel production to be used for transport except Cabo Verde that wants to
generate electricity from biodiesel in remote islands. Mali also intends to develop 4 MW
through hybrid systems (solar and jatropha) for rural electrification while Niger focuses
on the production of biofuel and biogas for cooking purposes (FAO, 2019). Nigeria is
promoting a blending mandate of 10 percent ethanol with gasoline (E10) and 20 percent
of biodiesel with diesel (B20). Similarly, Liberia hopes to reduce its emissions by 58
ktCO2e per year by blending its diesel fuel with 5 percent of biodiesel from palm oil.
Furthermore, Burkina Faso is also promoting the creation of biofuel plants with a
blending mandate of 10 percent ethanol and 5 percent biodiesel. Other West African
countries like Togo, Gambia, Guinea and Sierra Leone are also advocating production
of liquid biofuels from various feedstocks such as sugarcane, corn and rice husk (Abila,
2012; Jokiniemi & Ahokas, 2013; Popoola et al., 2015).
Jathropa and oilpalm
Jathropa and oilpalm have received a lot of investment attention in the last two
decades as energy crops with great potentials in many West African countries. There has
also been a lot of discussions about the pros and cons regarding their cultivation and
utilization as feedstocks for biofuel production. Jatropha is a hardy tree that thrives in
hot, dry climates. A number of jathropa species are widely grown as an energy crop
across West Africa especially in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria.
Jatropha curcas is particularly recommended for cultivation as energy crop. It does well
in quite extreme conditions of semi-arid climate and marginal soil, however, to yield
plenty of fruit for producing oil, it needs sufficient water, fertilizer and care (The
Research Council of Norway, 2011). There are concerns that its intensive cultivation
would lead to ‘converting arable land’ for the cultivation of energy crops and that could
affect staple food production, lead to increased food prices and food insecurity.
Anderson (2007) was of the opinion that jatropha is a crop that can be used for biofuels
without causing the aforementioned problems because it is used by farmers as a border
around their crops. She stated that its appalling scent and inedible seeds keep animals
away from the food crops inside. In addition, the oil from jatropha seed can be easily
refined into biodiesel. Anderson (2007) also opined that jatropha may have a future in
sub-Saharan Africa once crop improvements have been devised and each country
adapted modern management practices are established.
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is another crop of importance that originated and
widely grown in various parts of West Africa. It is a versatile crop in that all parts of the
plant, ‘from the roots to the flowers to the by-products, are used for food, traditional
medicine, and for their important sociocultural value’ (Yombouno, 2014). Nigeria is the
largest producer of palm oil, with a global market share of 3%. It is followed by Cote
d’Ivoire (Duku et al., 2011). The last two decades have witnessed rapid growth in
commercial oilpalm plantations, many of which are supported by governments and by
foreign investors. However, there are also some concerns regarding environmental and
socioeconomic impacts of commercial oilpalm plantations. For example, Cernansky
(2019) stated that there are concerns about impacts on local water supplies, wildlife
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populations, biodiversity, climate change as well as loss of farmlands by the locals to
commercial oilpalm plantations. Additional impacts include communities displacement
as well as their cultural/traditional institutions alterations. All stakeholders especially
local communities involvement as participants in large scale oilpalm development would
be necessary for its sustainable growth.
Major investors in West African energy crop cultivation and biofuels
production
Although there are lots of enthusiasm regarding transition to the production and
utilization of advanced liquid biofuels in West Africa but only limited number of the
initiatives have been started. Those that were started are essentially focused on blending
petroleum fuels with varying percentages of ethanol imported largely from Brazil. There
are also some indigenous and foreign companies in West Africa that started commercial
production of energy crops and/or biofuels production. Annuanom Industrial Project
Limited, KITE-Ghana (Kumasi Institute of Technology, Energy, and Environment), the
Gratis Foundation, New Energy-Ghana, and Biofuel Africa Ltd are some of the major
players in Ghana with investment focus on jathropa (Antwi-Bediako, 2019). For example,
Biofuel Africa Ltd. started its first working farm operation in Ghana in 2007.
Its activities involve growing and selling jatropha fruits and seeds to production and sale
of jatropha oil on a commercial scale (Torrey, 2010). There were also some governmentprivate participation programmes aimed at fostering biofuels production. An example is
the case of Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation’s partnership with state governments
and other industry partners (Dianca, 2012; Dunmade, 2018a). Tables 4 and 5 are Ghana
based bioenergy/biofuels investment projects based jathropa and oilpalm serving as
picturesque of the trends in West Africa. While there are robust bioenergy production
policies by many West African countries, the majority of the initiatives focusing on local
production of liquid biofuels are still on the drawing boards awaiting technical
partnerships and funding. Although the delay in the take-off of these laudable projects
are of concern, it however provides opportunities for proper learning from current
producers. It should afford the ECOWAS countries ample time to learn, and
develop/utilize lifecycle based liquid biofuel production facility design principles.
Adopting sustainable design approach would not only result in minimum ecological
footprint but also ensure economically sustainable and socially acceptable production
systems (Cristobal-Sarramian & Atzmuller, 2018; Dafrallah, 2010; van Zyl, 2011;
Popoola et al., 2015; Ndiaye, 2018; Dunmade, 2019; Nyström et al., 2019).
Table 4. Major investments in Jatropha curcas plantations in Ghana (Duku et al., 2011)
Name of institution/company Land area under cultivation (ha)
Funding sources
B1 Ghana
700
Private investment
ADRA/UNDP
800
UNDP/GEP/ADRA
New Energy
6
Donor funding
Gbimisi Women Group
4
UNIPEM/UNDP-GEP
AngloGold Ashanti Ltd
20
Corporate Fund
Valley View University
4
University Funds
Total
1,534

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Table 5. Major investments in the oil palm industry in Ghana (Duku et al., 2011)
Company
Location
Benso Oil Palm Plantation (BOPP) Ltd.
Benso
Twifo Oil Palm Plantation (TOPP) Ltd.
Twifo Praso
Ghana Oil Palm Development Corporation Ltd (GOPDC); known as the
Akim Oda
Okumaning Oil Palm Plantation Development Programme
National Oil Palm Plantation
New Juaben
Norpalm Ghana Ltd (formerly called Prestea Oil Palm Plantation)
Presten
National Oil Palm Plantation Ltd
Ayiem

Sustainable pathway to boosting liquid biofuels production and utilization in
West Africa
It has been projected that Africa has the potential to be the world’s largest bioenergy
producer by 2050. It was estimated that the continent has the capacity to produce up to
a quarter (317 EJ per annum) of the projected total world potential of 1272 EJ per annum
(Auth & Musolino, 2014). However, production of advanced liquid biofuels in
commercial quantities is still at the infancy stage in many West African countries
(Adjovi, 2012; Afrane, 2012; Dunmade, 2020). There are therefore a number of things
to be put in place in order to boost West African liquid biofuels production in a way that
would enable it to occupy its rightful place in the world. There is a need to develop a
program of identifying, selecting and focusing on massive production of a few number
of high yield locally adaptable bioenergy crops that would serve as feedstock for the
biofuels sub-sector (Dioha & Kumar, 2020). Although significant progress has been
made in this regard, as one can see a rise in foreign investment in the production of
biofuel crops like jatropha, cassava, oilpalm, cashew and sugarcane. However, jatropha
is a bioenergy crop with future potential for liquid biofuel production because cassava
and sugarcane are important staples in the sub-region. Another good step that has been
taken in that direction is the enabling policies that have been put in place by many West
African countries to enhance the optimum production and utilization of Jatropha for
biofuel production in the sub-region. Further progress would include expanding the
sources of feedstock for the industry. Among the areas that could be explored include
putting policies and logistic infrastructure in place for the gathering and marketing of
forest residues, sawmilling wastes, household and market organic wastes (Auth &
Musolino, 2014; Oyedepo et al., 2019).
FAO (2019) reported that there is increasing liquid biofuel use in Western African
countries like Nigeria and Ghana. The growing trend has been attributed to the adoption
of two policies in the region, namely: the 5 percent biofuel-blending target for ethanol
and biodiesel in 2013 and a bioenergy strategy in 2016. However the growing demand
needs to be met with adequate supply of locally produced liquid biofuel. Hence the need
to boost the local production as doing so would lead to the development of the local
economy, increased rural jobs, improved public health and the overall improvement in
standard of living of the citizens. In addition, boosting liquid biofuels production in West
Africa would involve providing an enabling environment for steady growth in local
demand as well as expansion to regional and international consumer market for the
production outputs (Smeets et al., 2007; ECOWAS, 2013; Popoola et al., 2015; FAO,
2019). Fig. 2 illustrates a model pathway to boosting liquid biofuels production in West
Africa. It shows the need for a participative approach, that involves all the stakeholders.
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Figure 2. Diagrammatic illustration of a model sustainable pathway to boosting liquid biofuel
production in West Africa.

It also shows the need to consider the availability of requisite infrastructure for
stable and sustainable operation of biofuels production facilities on a long run
(Dunmade, 2010 and 2020). Furthermore, the framework advocates the use of lifecycle
engineering principles both in the facility design and management of the operations of
such liquid biofuel production systems (Dunmade, 2012 and 2013a). It sees a necessity
to ensure that available bioenergy resources match the requirements of the developed
liquid biofuels production systems. In addition, it shows the need for progressive
capacity building for the evolution/proliferation of local or hybrid liquid biofuel
production technologies. Moreover, improved biofuel production would require tailoring
the capacity to manageable scale at the beginning and making progressive production
and market expansion as the technical-knowhow increases. Involvement of local
communities and other stakeholders as participants, right from the beginning throughout
the lifecycle of the project would be necessary for the success and continuous
improvement/expansion of liquid biofuels production in the region (Dunmade, 2013b
and 2018b).
Bioenergy development challenges and solutions
Although there are several benefits in producing liquid biofuels from second
generation biomass, there are also many challenges to its implementation ( FAO and
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PISCES, 2009). Challenges to liquid biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass can
be divided into three major categories, namely: Feedstock, technology and policy issues.
According to Nigam & Singh (2011), ’production of second-generation biofuel
requires most sophisticated processing production equipment, more investment per unit
of production and larger-scale facilities to confine and curtail capital cost scale
economies. To achieve the potential energy and economic outcome of second-generation
biofuels, further research, development and application are required on feedstock
production and conversion technologies’.
Furthermore, there are many concerns raised regarding potential environmental and
socio-economic impacts of bioenergy development in West Africa (Dunmade, 2019).
Issues raised regarding bioenergy production in Africa include the requirement of large
expanse of land to grow energy crops on a commercial scale, loss of land rights of local
communities, economic viability of large scale energy crops production, negative
impacts on climate change, water pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, food security,
human health and social conflicts, and loss of biodiversity (The Research Council of
Norway, 2011; UNU-IAS, 2012; Kgathi et al., 2017). ECOWAS (2014) stated that
‘collecting these resources also exposes women-mostly in rural areas-to the risk of
injury, rape, or harassment, and limits the time available for education, commercial
activities, or leisure.’ The use of firewood for cooking also exposes women to ‘household
air pollution from indoor smoke, small particle pollution, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen
oxides’ (ECOWAS, 2014).
It is also argued that large scale energy crops production will deprive farmers the
land to grow crops required for their subsistence, and that this could lead to food scarcity
and food price hike (Anderson, 2007) Consequently, many people at the economic
fringes may not be able to afford to buy nutritional food. Energy crops can thus worsen
food insecurity in poor countries (Adjovi, 2012). Another concern is that large bioenergy
development programs can lead to deforestation. It is also believed that it will worsen
the current energy provision burden placed primarily on women, which is not only
depriving them of engaging in gainful employment but also responsible for widespread
respiratory diseases resulting from their cooking with charcoal and firewoods (Forest
cover, 2019). All the aforementioned concerns are genuine and worth consideration in
bioenergy development programs. However, those concerns can be addressed through
adequate planning and supportive policies. For example, according to Simonyan &
Fasina (2013), ‘lignocellulosic feedstocks (such as trees, shrubs, grasses, agricultural
and forest residues) are potentially more abundant and cheaper than feedstock from
conventional agriculture because they can be produced with fewer resources and on
marginal and poor lands. Also, agricultural and forest residues are currently available
from current harvesting activities without the need for additional land cultivation’. They
further stated that about 50% of the residue are burnt on cropland before the start of the
next growing season.’ Such burning of residue is not only a waste of resources but it also
contributes to global warming, photochemical smog and associated health problems.
Agrifood process residues, which are currently being sent to landfills, are also potential
energy sources that can be harnessed to boost biofuels production in West Africa. The
effort being made in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Mali and Togo at promoting a
community based intercropping of improved Jatropha seeds with food crops is helping
to stop soil erosion, restoring degraded lands, and providing a significant increase and
sustainability on food crops yields (Kotrba, 2013; Bridge builders, 2019). These goals

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will be easily realized under a more efficient plant breeding and improved agronomic
management (Abila, 2014; Baumert et al., 2018). In addition, community scale bioenergy
development programs involving the use of improved energy and food crops seedling,
efficiently managed biofuel processing and marketing with adequate supportive
governmental policies would eliminate or at least minimize most of the aforementioned
concerns. Kgathi et al. (2017) buttressed this point by reporting ‘positive environmental
impacts such as high energy return on investment and high GHG savings when Jatropha
is cultivated on abandoned agricultural fields in some parts of West Africa’.
Furthermore, community scale bioenergy programs would lead to increased women
employment, improved social status/standard of living of rural dwellers, increase local
government revenues, and general rural development. Moreover, it will reduce women’s
dependence on using firewood for cooking and thereby reduce the associated respiratory
diseases. Anderson (2007) recommended slow implementation of jathropa as a biofuel
to allow time for farmers to adapt to new modern farming practices/technology. Jatropha,
according to Anderson (2007), would be an ideal supplement to small farmers’ income
since it doesn't require irrigation, requires very little fertilizer and very little care.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented the current trend in global liquid biofuels production, with a
focus on the status of biofuels production in West African sub-region. A number of steps
that need to be taken to boost liquid biofuel production in the region were then
highlighted. Among the articulated points are the need to expand the current feedstock
base, establishment of enabling environment for continuous improvement in consumer
market demand, and steps to evolution and proliferation of locally owned advanced
lignocellulosic biofuel production technologies. Taking these steps are expected not only
to boost liquid biofuel production in the region, but it will foster continuous growth and
encourage innovations in the sector. Potential impacts of implementing the framework
is that it will ultimately lead to attainment of a number of sustainable development goals
in the West African sub-region.
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