1

EXPLORING THE CORRELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
IN MALTREATED CHILDREN AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR IN ADULTHOOD

By
Emma Benson

Under the Supervision of
Dr. Janne Holmgren

An Honours Project submitted
in partial fulfillment
of the Degree requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Arts – Criminal Justice (Honours)
Mount Royal University

Date Submitted: April 2024

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Copyright 2024
Emma Benson
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

This work is completed in entirety by Emma Benson. All rights are reserved to the information
provided within this document.

MOUNT ROYAL UNIVERSITY
CALGARY, AB. CANADA

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Acknowledgments
I would like to gratefully acknowledge my mom, dad, and stepdad for whom I would not
be where I am today without your unwavering support and love through this entire process. I can
not say thank you enough for all you have done for me, especially during these last four years.
Through everything that has happened in these past years, you three have never given me any
idea that I couldn’t achieve whatever I set my mind to. For everything you have done, I give you
the biggest, most genuine thank you. I love you guys.
I would also like to thank my family and friends who have supported me from afar and
cheered me on when I needed it the most. The little I’m proud of you’s have never gone
unnoticed and I am utterly grateful.
To my boyfriend, thank you for the constant support, for always listening to me rant,
giving a hug or pep talk, and for being so understanding when I have an assignment to do on date
night. Your patience, understanding, and love has truly been what has got me through many of
these hard days. Thank you, I love you.
Last but not least, a huge thank you goes out to Dr. Janne Holmgren who guided me
through this project and helped my vision come to life. I am incredibly grateful for all the times
you have met with me last minute and answered all my questions, no matter how small. All of
your advice, guidance and support has made this experience that much more enjoyable. Thank
you for believing in me when I often did not believe in myself.

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Land Acknowledgment
Mount Royal University is located in the traditional territories of the Niitsitapi (Blackfoot) and
the people of the Treaty 7 region in southern Alberta, which includes the Siksika, the Piikani, the
Kainai, the Tsuut'ina and the Iyarhe Nakoda. We are situated on land where the Bow River meets
the Elbow River. The traditional Blackfoot name of this place is "Mohkinstsis," which we now
call the city of Calgary. The city of Calgary is also home to the Métis Nation.

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Abstract
Child maltreatment is a highly prevalent and impactful experience that can alter a child’s
development and potentially make them more susceptible to criminal activity in adulthood. This
literature review highlights the factors, both socially and psychologically, such as how a child’s
brain develops, their cognition, and their social, environmental, and emotional milestones play a
role in criminality later in their life. A strong factor in a child's overall development is the
introduction of play, specifically play spent with parents or caregivers which builds resiliency in
children. Resilience can better equip children who have experienced maltreatment to cope and
recover from the trauma they have endured. Furthermore, this literature review will tie in these
factors that are important to child development and evaluate how they correlate to criminal
behaviour in adulthood.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Land Acknowledgment ........................................................................................................................................................ 4
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Methodology ..........................................................................................................................................................................10
Brain Development and Milestones in Children .......................................................................................................11
Prenatal and Early Postnatal Brain Development ......................................................................................................................... 12
Typical Early Brain Growth .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Parental Factors ................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Cognitive Milestones .................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Emotional and Social Milestones ........................................................................................................................................................... 15
Attachment and Social Bonding ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Brain Imaging ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Social and Environmental Factors .................................................................................................................................18
Neglect ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Maternal Neglect ............................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Parental Involvement...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Abuse .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Physical Abuse ................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Sexual Abuse ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Psychological Abuse ........................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Play ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Resilience .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Correlation with Criminal Behaviour ...........................................................................................................................31
Preventative Factors.................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Limitations .............................................................................................................................................................................35
Implications for Future Research...................................................................................................................................36
Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................................................................37
References ..............................................................................................................................................................................40

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Abbreviations
CA & N

Childhood Abuse and Neglect

CSA

Child Sexual Abuse

PTSD

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

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It is a well-known and well-established concept that adverse childhood experiences such
as abuse and neglect have large impacts on the alteration of a child's development. These can
manifest both physically and mentally and generally occur during the first 18 years of an
individual's life (Basto-Pereira et al., 2022; Herzog & Schmahl, 2018). Additionally, there are
extensive amounts of social and environmental factors that can play a role in the early prediction
of criminal behaviour (Leschied et al., 2008). While the long-term implications of these
childhood experiences have been of focus for the past few decades, early life stress, as well as
childhood sexual, emotional, and physical abuse have more recently been shown to be associated
with poor health outcomes during adulthood (McFarlane et al., 2005). Lovibond and Lovibond
(1995) discuss that stressful life events are thought to lead to chronic arousal and impaired
functioning as a result of a stress response. Further into the research on these adverse childhood
experiences, there is evidence to support that encounters such as abuse, exposure to violence,
neglect, and inadequate care influence neural development (McLaughlin et al., 2019).
This thesis will explore psychological development and the factors, both social and
environmental, in childhood that correlate with criminal behaviour in adulthood. Factors such as
brain development, social milestones, emotional milestones, social factors, and environmental
factors all can affect a child's psychological development, causing them to miss crucial
milestones and alter their brain structure. The investigation of these factors will be done through
existing literature by means of a thematic analysis in the hope of furthering the knowledge in this
field through a comprehensive synopsis of the literature.
Maltreatment is described as when a child is experiencing repeated exposure to incidents
where they feel a betrayal of trust, often by a parent or caregiver (Teicher et al., 2013). When a
child experiences maltreatment in the early years of their life, due to the sensitivity and plasticity

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of their brain, they are more susceptible to long-term consequences (Hart & Rubia, 2012;
McFarlane et al., 2005). Brain function and adaptations are severely altered during times of
serious maltreatment due to how the inflicted trauma aids in behaviour, emotion, and selfregulation (Fox, 2019; Korgaonkar, et al., 2023; National Scientific Council on the Developing
Child, 2015; Nolvi et al., 2023; Pancost et al., 2022; Yoon et al., 2021).
Behavioural difficulties related to altered brain development and brain structure can
include Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, aggression, delays in
milestones, limited tolerance to stress and stressful situations, poor impulse control, substance
abuse, and conduct disorders (Cabrera et al., 2020; Dias de Castro Bins et al., 2022; DuMont et
al, 2007; Hart & Rubia, 2012; Herzog & Schmahl, 2018; Korgaonkar et al., 2023; Nolvi et al.,
2023; Pancost et al., 2022; Zhuo et al., 2022). Along with the behavioural aspects of
maltreatment that can be long-term, some short-term risks of abuse and neglect can be associated
with aggression with adults and peers, scoring lower intellectually and academically, and
difficulty with motor functioning (Malinosky-Rummell & Hansen, 1993).
After a critical analysis of the aforementioned adverse experiences in childhood, the link
between the children who faced these developmentally-altering experiences and their criminality
in adulthood will be examined. Through this exploration, the goal of this thesis is to
conceptualize the existing literature that has been done on these factors and break down in which
way they are correlated to criminal behaviour in adulthood. By critically analyzing the data and
information in this way, the highlighted factors will help those in this field further their
knowledge and understanding of why criminal behaviour occurs while all being within one piece
of research. Such research in this field is important not only to the justice system but also to the

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study of child development as this thesis can be used as a tool to prevent or address such factors
that may be correlated with criminal behaviour.
The value of this thesis is the concise knowledge that it will bring to those who want to
learn more about this topic. By comprehensively connecting a multitude of existing literature,
this thesis can be used as a great tool for psychologists, development specialists, criminal justice
workers, youth workers, and even parents and caregivers as a way to understand the correlation
between child development and the impact of adverse experiences. As the research conducted on
maltreatment and the effects it has on development has grown exponentially, the more
understanding we have to create preventative plans to help children cope and manage the
aftermath of such adverse experiences.
Methodology
The development of a child is a continuous sequence of changes involving the emotional,
biological, and psychological aspects that begin at birth and occur till the end of adolescence
(Pancost et al., 2022). The aim of this thesis is to conduct a comprehensive summary of the
existing literature on these factors to better understand the correlation between psychological
development in children and criminal behaviour in adulthood. By conceptualizing the existing
research into a concise synopsis, those interested in this area can acquire a vast amount of
knowledge through a condensed thesis. The objectives of this literature review are to:
1. Investigate the correlation between the psychological development of children and
criminal behaviour in adulthood.
2. Examine in detail, through existing literature, the psychological, environmental, and
social factors that all contribute to a child's development and how they may play into
criminal behaviour in their adult life.

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3. Seek an understanding of how these factors affect specific developmental milestones and
socialization.
4. Conduct an extensive search on this correlation and as a result, create a conceptualized
and concise resource that is readily accessible and easy to understand.
Due to the nature of this literature review, the remaining part of this thesis will focus on brain
development and milestones in children, social and environmental factors, and the correlation
with criminal behaviour, limitations, and any implications for future research.
Brain Development and Milestones in Children
When a child experiences traumatic events, such as maltreatment, there is a crucial
impact done to their development both socially and neuropsychologically (Cabrera et al., 2020;
Dias de Castro Bins et al., 2020; Hart & Rubia, 2012). In order to understand how and why
maltreatment affects a child’s brain so tremendously, a simple understanding of the brain
functions that aid in typical brain development is imperative (Cabrera et al., 2020). Neurological
areas such as the hippocampus, corpus callosum, amygdala, and white and gray matter affect
motor skills and executive functioning (Andrews et al., 2021; Cabrera et al., 2020). When such
areas are impaired or affected by maltreatment, harmful consequences can arise during adulthood
(Dias de Castro Bins et al., 2020). Additionally, developmental milestone delays in infancy and
toddlerhood such as language and motor skills can be predictive of neurobehavioural outcomes
and neurodevelopmental disorders (Zhuo et al., 2022). The maternal role in the child’s life from
as early as the fetal period can have effects on the development of the child (Nolvi et al., 2023).
Associations such as atypical brain development and elevated risk for psychopathy are potential
risks for the child (Nolvi et al., 2023).

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Prenatal and Early Postnatal Brain Development
Typical Early Brain Growth
Due to the rapid brain growth that occurs after a child is born, prenatal care is critical
during this time as it is an important stage for neural and functional growth (Cabrera et al.,
2020). White matter undergoes quick growth changes during infancy and plays a role in the
development of a child's behaviour (Cabrera et al., 2020). This process of the myelination of the
white matter begins during the prenatal period of growth and continues to increasingly grow
during infancy (Cabrera et al., 2020). Gray matter (involved in muscle control, sensory
perception, and memory) and white matter are vulnerable to changes during development due to
synaptic pruning (Cabrera et al., 2020). While white matter continues to grow during
adolescence, gray matter tends to increase in infancy and decrease throughout childhood and
adolescence (Cabrera et al., 2020).
Responsible for processing and assigning emotions to determine valence to a stimulus,
the amygdala works with the hippocampus to put those emotional valences into memory
(Cabrera et al., 2020). Peak growth for the amygdala is during the pre-adolescence stage
(Cabrera et al., 2020). Working hand and hand with the amygdala, the hippocampus function is
involved with learning, memory, and response to stress (Cabrera et al., 2020). Many agree that
there is a continuous hippocampal volume increase as an individual ages (Cabrera et al., 2020).
Lastly, the corpus callosum connects to both the left and right hemispheres of the brain, made up
of over 190 axons, and has been hypothesized to play a vital role in cognition (Cabrera et al.,
2020). There is evidence to show that the thickness of the corpus callosum is related to problemsolving skills, intelligence, and processing speed (Cabrera et al., 2020).

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Parental Factors
With an increase in access to neuroimaging and technology that furthers the knowledge
of child neurodevelopment, the difficult task of attributing certain structural and functional
changes or delays to certain factors in the child's life comes into play. While social factors have a
strong impact on neurodevelopment, parental factors covary in their ability to affect a child and
their neurodevelopment long-term (Hyde et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2020). An association with
prenatal adversity and increased risk of psychopathy in children has been consistently linked due
to the effect maternal stress, depression, and anxiety during pregnancy can have on a baby’s
brain development (Nolvi et al., 2023). Prenatal adversity, specifically maternal stress during
pregnancy, has been linked to causing smaller brain volume, altered corticolimbic structure,
altered cortical thinning, and changes in the functionality of the brain (Nolvi et al., 2023).
Furthermore, the structure, function, and connectivity of areas in the corticolimbic system,
responsible for the regulation of pain in the body, have been linked to types of parenting styles
(Hyde et al., 2022).
At a young age, a child’s brain plasticity is extremely malleable and can change with
negative or adverse experiences (Nolvi et al., 2023). In this early postnatal period of a child’s
life, the rapid development of structural and functional networks of the brain enhances the neural
plasticity in the brain (Nolvi et al., 2023). During that postnatal phase, environment and family
structure can have a large developmental impact on children who experience early deprivation,
specifically children in the foster system (Nolvi et al., 2023). While there is evidence to support
that early deprivation can persist and continue to cause developmental issues in their lives, those
moved into a supportive environment at a younger age are more likely to catch up
developmentally (Nolvi et al., 2023).

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Parental factors such as lack of maternal involvement and encouragement of a child's
feelings can lead to the absence of adequate communication skills and ways to cope with feelings
(Cabrera et al., 2020). Verbal input from a parent is crucial to a child’s neurodevelopment,
something that is often missing in children who have been maltreated (Cabrera et al., 2020).
High-quality caregiving and parental sensitivity have been found to support the development of
structural connectivity and functionality of a child’s brain (Nolvi et al., 2023). The parental role
in a child’s cognitive development is sometimes overlooked, especially in homes where children
are being mistreated (Cabrera et al., 2020). However, inadequate parental involvement or input
when it comes to things such as verbal communication can be detrimental to that child’s
development (Cabrera et al., 2020).
Cognitive Milestones
Stimulation of the cognitive and linguistic systems in a child from an early age supports
their own cognitive and social-emotional development (Nolvi et al., 2023). With the introduction
of early linguistic practice, neural circuits responsible for language, attention, and self-regulation
of young children and infants are significantly increased (Nolvi et al., 2023). Acts such as being
able to roll over, sit unassisted, say their first words and walk are all salient markers to help
parents and professionals examine the development of a child (Zhuo et al., 2022). While delays
with these salient markers are all associated with poorer neurocognitive function, delays in
speech were considered to be associated with both poorer neurocognitive function and
behavioural problems (Cabrera et al., 2020; Zhuo et al., 2022). Zhuo et al, (2022) found that
children with language and motor milestone delays had the worst neurocognitive function and
behavioural outcomes.

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Although varying in type and severity, maltreatment can impact cognitive milestones and
leave the child with long-lasting consequences psychologically, neurologically, and
environmentally (Cabrera et al., 2020). Through analyzing these major milestones, emphasized
attention is brought to how maltreatment causes a disruption in the neural structures and impairs
the development of a child (Cabrera et al., 2020). Even something as small as an infection during
the critical stages of development can result in deficits or changes in behaviour (Blomström et
al., 2020). Through the work of Blomström et al. (2020), it was found that infections during both
fetal and childhood could result in adult deficits such as aggressive behaviour, lack of cognitive
abilities, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Small disturbances to a child's life can have major
impacts, even when it does not seem to be affecting the child on a large scale.
Emotional and Social Milestones
Across the lifespan, positive social interactions, support, and relationships are critical for
more adaptive brain functioning (Nolvi et al., 2023). When children are put in supportive, caring
homes that enable healthy social and neurological development they are able to attain certain
milestones throughout the first few years of their life. Smith (2008) developed a list of
milestones that children experience at different ages, beginning their connection to other humans
and society. At as little as three months old a child can exhibit milestones such as responding to
facial expressions, sounds, movements, and different emotions displayed to them (Smith, 2008).
Recognizing familiar faces, smiling at themselves in the mirror, showing anger when restricted,
imitating gestures, and reacting to others' strong emotions all occur at the sixth-month mark
(Smith, 2008). When a child hits the one-year mark they should be able to smile at strangers,
regulate behaviour in uncertain situations, see that individuals act as their own independent

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agents, and may show empathy when a loved one is upset or loved ones are yelling at each other
(Smith, 2008).
When a child has experienced or is experiencing maltreatment, their emotional
discrimination and response inhibition are severely altered, causing them to miss some of the
aforementioned milestones (Hart & Rubia, 2012). If a child has experienced emotional abuse in
the past, this contributes to these social and emotional milestones as the child learns to deal with
conflict, emotion, verbal violence, and failed emotional connections in a different way (Hart &
Rubia, 2012). For example, if a child experiences a lack of attention to their needs, lack of
emotional connection, or refusal of essential psychological care, that child will not learn how to
effectively manage their feelings or ask for what they need emotionally (Hart & Rubia, 2012).
Due to the presence of abuse and stressors early in their life, children may experience major
behavioural consequences and the structure of their brain may never function like a typical
child’s would (Hart & Rubia, 2012).
Attachment and Social Bonding
Not only is understanding early brain development, parental factors, and cognitive
milestones extremely important toward the study of maltreatment and its correlation with
criminality but building attachments and social bonds is essential for overall development
(Haslam & Taylor, 2022; Winston & Chicot, 2016). The brain development, growth, and neuron
pruning done in the first two years of a child's life is significant to their overall development,
socially and cognitively (Winston & Chicot, 2016). Therefore, when a child experiences neglect
or any other form of maltreatment that causes them to receive a lack of mentalizing from their
caregiver, this could have distinctive impacts on attachment (Haslam & Taylor, 2022). This lack
of mentalizing deprives the child of learning about their own internal world and distress in a way

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that is detached from the adverse experiences and maltreatment (Haslam & Taylor, 2022).
Further, when a child has a complex trauma history, they may have problems developing
attachments due to the problematic disruptions of emotional regulation, behavioural control, or
self-concept (Cabrera et al., 2020). Taken together, there is evidence that shows not only can
maltreatment affect a child's internal development, but it can also affect their ability to grow
outside of themselves in social interactions and relationships (Cabrera et al., 2020; Haslam &
Taylor, 2022).
While it may seem small and insignificant, the emotional development of children is
highly powerful and pivotal for their development (Winston & Chicot, 2016). The experiences
children, especially in infancy, have with their caregivers and parents are unbelievably important
due to the millions of new neural connections a child is making during this time (Winston &
Chicot, 2016). An important aspect of development to aid in the relationship with parents and
caregivers is play and the bonds playing with a child can create. This will be further discussed
later in the portion of this review on play. When positive and repeated interactions are present
during this vulnerable stage, learning, logic, memories, and meaningful relationships begin to
form (Winston & Chicot, 2016). When a child does not experience positive interactions or
relationships, they will not gain the pathways responsible for typical human experiences
(Winston & Chicot, 2016). From as young as six months old, children can express happiness and
emotions to someone they love and have an attachment to more than someone less familiar to
them (Smith, 2008). If a child is not experiencing love, attention, and language they are likely to
be deprived of critical milestones and emotional attachments (Winston & Chicot, 2016).

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Brain Imaging
A key discovery in the research of children who have experienced maltreatment and
those who engage in psychopathological behaviour is the access to neuroimaging and how the
brain reacts to adverse experiences (Teicher & Samson, 2016). Early life stress and traumatic
experiences in childhood can impact the structure and function of a child's impressionable,
developing brain (Cabrera et al., 2020; Dias de Castro Bins et al., 2022; DuMont et al, 2007;
Hart & Rubia, 2012; Korgaonkar et al., 2023; Pancost et al., 2022). With the inclusion of
neuroimaging, the structure of the brain can be examined in a much more in-depth way, showing
the substantial development a brain goes through during different stages of life (Andrews et al.,
2021). For example, the reduction in the volume of the prefrontal cortex of children who have
been maltreated is evidence that there is a neurologically developmental to what maltreatment
can do to the brain (Cabrera et al., 2020). Aspects such as impulse control, regulating thoughts
and emotions, and social behaviour are at risk of being affected by the thinning of the prefrontal
cortex (Cabrera et al., 2020; Hart & Rubia, 2012; Pancost et al., 2022). If a child’s
neurobiological stress system is negatively affected at a young age it could result in an alteration
of the functioning of the brain (Cabrera et al., 2020). This alteration in the child’s brain function
and structure is a product of maltreatment due to many areas of the brain being prone to change
after experiencing abuse and neglect (Cabrera et al., 2020).
Social and Environmental Factors
It is evident that experiencing trauma and maltreatment at a young age can significantly
affect a child's developing brain and their social cognition, resulting in problems later in their
lives (Cabrera et al., 2020; DuMont et al., 2007; Hart & Rubia, 2012; Herzog & Schmahl, 2018;
Nolvi et al., 2023; Zhuo et al., 2022). In addition to knowing the effects of maltreatment and

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trauma on the brain, it is imperative that each of these social and environmental factors are
separately examined to get a full idea of how these factors play a role. Early life environmental
risks can be categorized into two fractions: sociodemographic factors and parental capability in
the upbringing of a child, and the processes or experiences that affect and alter brain
development (Blomström et al., 2020). Two of the most robust predictors of antisocial behaviour
and strong predictors of delinquency are psychopathy and childhood trauma (Moreira et al.,
2022). Neglect, maternal neglect, parental involvement, abuse, play, and resilience all have
significant roles in a child’s life, possibly creating the difference between those who grow up to
have criminal tendencies and those who do not.
Neglect
Estimated to affect almost one in five children, neglect is one of the highest forms of
child maltreatment (Haslam & Taylor, 2022). Due to its associated early timing in a child's life
and its chronicity, neglect has higher risks for an individual than other types of maltreatment,
having long-term influences on development (Haslam & Taylor, 2022; Pancost et al., 2022). The
long-term influences neglect has on a child’s development are brought on due to the plasticity of
the nervous system during important developmental periods in their life (Dias de Castro Bins et
al., 2020; McFarlane et al., 2005; Pancost et al., 2022). It has been heavily examined that
children who are exposed to neglect are prone to neurological abnormalities and deficits,
maladaptive patterns of development, disturbances in emotional regulation and impulse control,
and poor relationship skills (Cabrera et al., 2020; Harvard University, 2024a; Haslam & Taylor,
2022; Pancost et al., 2022). Additionally, there is evidence to suggest that the long-term impact
of neglect can be attributed to where the child lived at the time of the neglect as well as the
family and community characteristics (DuMont et al., 2007).

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Even more so than active abuse, chronic neglect has a far wider range of damaging
effects on a child's development and well-being (Harvard University, 2024a). As reported by
Harvard University (2024a), in the United States neglect accounts for 78% of all child
maltreatment incidents, greatly surpassing physical abuse, sexual abuse, and psychological abuse
cases combined. The disruptions to a child's development due to the negative effects of neglect
may vary between each maltreatment case but there are regularly many similarities in aspects
such as the development of the brain, emotion regulation, stress responses, and behavioural
issues.
Behaviour is a large aspect of development that can be negatively affected by neglect due
to the way the brain is learning to process information and specific skills for adjusting their
behaviour (Arseneault et al., 2000; Cabrera et al., 2020; Harvard University, 2024a). Exposure to
neglect can, especially in the primitive early years, leave children with difficulty processing and
merging information from their environment which can lead to emotional, cognitive, and
behavioural disorders (Cabrera et al., 2020; Fox, 2019; Harvard University, 2024a). Furthermore,
the brain goes through extensive growth, about 75%, throughout the first two years of a child's
life (Pancost et al., 2022). With that in mind, children who are being neglected during those years
are at high risk for experiencing laps in executive functioning and behavioural skills (Cabrera et
al., 2020; DuMont et al, 2007; Hart & Rubia, 2012; Harvard University, 2024a).
In addition, neglected children’s biological stress-response systems may be altered
developmentally which can lead to anxiety, depression, and other chronic debilitations later in
their life (Harvard University, 2024a). Children who experience maltreatment, especially early in
their development, are more likely to suffer from psychiatric disorders (Teicher et al., 2013).
Specifically, anxiety disorders, PTSD, substance abuse, major depression, and bipolar disorder

21
are common among those who have experienced maltreatment (McFarlane et al., 2005; Teicher
et al., 2013). Subsequently, neglected children are more likely to suffer from internalized
symptoms than children who have experienced other forms of abuse (Garon-Bissonnette et al.,
2022; Zhang, 2023). Symptoms can include difficulty dealing with stress, making friends, doing
well in school, and social events; lack of independence, confidence, and self-determination
(Zhang, 2023).
Maternal Neglect
Not only does maternal neglect toward a child have an effect on their functioning, but
maternal exposure to neglect and abuse has been shown to have long-lasting consequences for
their child both mentally and physically (Garon-Bissonnette et al., 2022). Children whose
mothers experienced childhood abuse and neglect (CA & N) were more likely to present
biological, behavioural, and developmental problems in their early childhood years than those
who had mothers who did not have a history with CA & N (Garon-Bissonnette et al., 2022).
Even as young as three years old, a child who experiences a greater amount of maternal hostility
is more likely to show stronger connectivity during emotional processing between the amygdala
and the medial prefrontal cortex than a child who experiences less material hostility (Hyde et al.,
2022).
Parental Involvement
While violent criminal behaviour is believed to be derived from genetic or environmental
factors, or a combination of the two; early life environmental risks such as parental capability
and involvement in the upbringing of a child become increasingly important in this conversation
(Zhang et al., 2020). In order to manage parenting along with all other aspects of life, there is a
set of core capabilities set out by psychology and neuroscience research that adults use in their

22
daily lives (Harvard University, 2024b). The core capabilities include actions such as flexibility,
planning, focus, self-control, and awareness all work together to initiate a response toward a
stimulus (Harvard University, 2024b). These core capabilities fall under self-regulation and
executive functioning, including both intentional and automatic self-regulation (Harvard
University, 2024b). Not only are these capabilities important for the adults' well-being and life,
but they are also of great value to any child of these adults (Harvard University, 2024b).
Although humans are not born with these skills, through the right experiences and
practice one can develop them (Harvard University, 2024b). Beginning in early childhood,
typically by the age of three, executive function skills are present in a child's behaviour such as
remembering and following simple rules (Harvard University, 2024b). A rapid improvement in
these skills happens from ages three to five (Harvard University, 2024b). Although these core
capabilities do not only grow in childhood and adolescence, it is important to form a strong
foundation before adulthood as it is easier to develop in younger years of life (Harvard
University, 2024b).
If an adult experienced their own form of childhood stress that altered their own brain
development, these core capabilities would be at risk and impede their ability to use them
effectively, if at all (Harvard University, 2024b). In adults, two main deficits as a result of
experiencing stress are executive functioning and self-regulation (Harvard University, 2024b).
Additionally, if an adult is experiencing stressful stimuli in their lives, this could also derail their
core capabilities and leave them to rely solely on their automatic responses (Harvard University,
2024b). Just as children experience behaviour disorders when dealing with stress or trauma, adult
brains react very similarly when exposed to high levels of stress (Harvard University, 2024b).
Aspects such as unpredictable and threatening environments, poverty, and rewarding stimuli

23
such as food or drugs can all aid in significant stress (Harvard University, 2024b). Many adults
who are experiencing their own trauma or acute stress have difficulty keeping track of the
problems in their lives, analyzing them, exploring options for dealing with them, and setting
priorities for how they will move beyond them (Harvard University, 2024b).
Abuse
Often seen as a continuation of neglect, abuse is broken down most commonly into three
different types: physical, sexual, and psychological. Emerging evidence from Korgaonkar et al.
(2023) states that pervasive alterations in functional connectivity are associated with childhood
abuse. The age at which a child experiences abuse can be crucial to moderate the risk and type of
psychopathy. This is largely for those during the preschool and preadolescent ages due to the
increased risk of depression, suicidal ideations, and dissociative symptoms (Korgaonkar et al.,
2023). As well as neglect, abuse has a multitude of neurological, social, and emotional
consequences, especially when experienced at a young age. Moreover, when the abuse the child
is enduring is extreme, it can leave lasting injuries and disabilities that can lead to more health
problems in adulthood (Manuel, 2021).
Physical Abuse
According to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS), 18% of
reported cases are about physical abuse (Peterson et al., 2014). Physical abuse is considered by
Peterson et al., (2014) as a:
nonaccidental physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures or death)
as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking,
hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise harming a child,
that is inflicted by a parent, caregiver, or other person who has responsibility for the

24
child. Such injury is considered abuse regardless of whether the caregiver intended to
hurt the child. (p. 21)
Additionally, physical abuse such as spanking is not considered abuse if done appropriately and
does not cause bodily injury to the child (Peterson et al., 2014). Strikingly enough, most physical
and sexual abuse cases happen inflicted by someone who is not a family member (Peterson et al.,
2014).
Physical abuse largely affects mental and physical health, leaving a child with both
liberal and psychological impacts on their body and mind (Manuel, 2021). As discussed in the
section on neglect, a child that experiences physical abuse in the first few years of their life is
more at risk for delays in executive functioning and behavioural problems (Cabrera et al., 2020;
DuMont et al, 2007; Hart & Rubia, 2012; Harvard University, 2024a). Through the research
investigating children who have experienced abuse, a smaller right hippocampus was present
specifically in children with a history of physical abuse (Cabrera et al., 2020). This is evidence to
support why children who have been psychically abused have trouble with adapting to situations,
self-regulation, and responding to stress (Cabrera et al., 2020; Herzog & Schmahl, 2018; Nolvi et
al., 2023; Teicher & Samson, 2013).
Landford et al., (2007) noted that children who had been abused were about 1.5 times
more likely to be absent from school and were less likely to attend college than non-abused
children. Furthermore, children who experienced physical abuse were more likely to develop a
conduct disorder later in their life (Peterson et al., 2014). The development of behavioural and
personality disorders such as depression and PTSD are common among children who have been
physically abused (Herzog & Schmahl, 2018; Moreira et al., 2022; Springer et al., 2007; Teicher
& Samson, 2013).

25
Sexual Abuse
A continuation of physical abuse, sexual abuse holds some very similar consequences
and risk factors for children who experience this type of maltreatment. Long-term psychological
consequences such as PTSD, suicide, self-harm, conduct disorder, affective instability, substance
abuse, depression, and anxiety are prevalent for children who have survived sexual abuse
(Edwards, 2018; Hailes et al., 2019; Sanjeevi et al., 2018). Sexual assault can include specific
activities by a parent or caregiver that involve a child’s genital area (Peterson et al., 2014).
Activities such as, but not limited to, penetration, incest, rape, fondling a child’s genitals,
indecent exposure, and sexual exploitation through prostitution are all considered to be forms of
childhood sexual abuse (Peterson et al., 2014). Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) is estimated to affect
11.8% of the population worldwide with 7.6 to 8% of victims being male and 15% to 19.7%
being female (Sanjeevi et al., 2018).
Due to the timing of CSA being during formative developmental years, CSA can produce
numerous chemical, hormonal, and physiological changes due to the increase in synaptic pruning
being done during this time (Edwards, 2018; Hailes et al., 2019; Sanjeevi et al., 2018). CSA can
have huge impacts on the brain not only in childhood but also in adulthood where there is
evidence of mental health disorders and other long-term negative outcomes (Edwards, 2018;
Hailes et al., 2019). Individuals who are survivors of CSA are more likely to experience lower
satisfaction in their relationships as well as unstable intimate relationships later in life (Edwards,
2018; Hailes et al., 2019; Sanjeevi et al., 2018). In particular, women who experienced CSA are
more likely to disagree with their partners and have a lessened affectionate disposition toward
their partners (Edwards, 2018; Hailes et al., 2019; Sanjeevi et al., 2018).

26
Along with a multitude of psychological and developmental risk factors associated with
sexual abuse, gender is seen to be an additional risk for CSA (Sanjeevi et al., 2018). Females are
more likely to experience sexual abuse in their life than males but the importance of researching
how CSA abuse affects both males and females is crucial in the research field (Sanjeevi et al.,
2018). Recurrent forms of abuse and neglect are more common among females who have
experienced CSA, as well as female children raised in low-income households are at a greater
risk (Sanjeevi et al., 2018). Later in life women who experienced CSA are at a greater risk for
panic episodes, depression, anxiety, distress in social situations, and elevated feelings of shame
(Sanjeevi et al., 2018). Conversely, behavioural problems occur more commonly in male CSA
survivors than in female survivors (Sanjeevi et al., 2018). While both male and female CSA
survivors are at a higher risk of suicide, male CSA survivors exhibit a higher rate of suicide
ideation and suicide attempts (Sanjeevi et al., 2018).
Psychological Abuse
Also referred to as emotional abuse and neglect, psychological abuse is a pattern of
behaviours toward a child that impairs their sense of self and their emotional development
(Petersen et al., 2014; Brassard et al., 2020). Peterson et al., (2014) recognize behaviours such as
“constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance” (p.
22) to be included in psychological abuse. Psychological abuse is often the form of maltreatment
that gets less attention and research done on it in comparison to neglect, sexual abuse, and
physical abuse while its prevalence is considerably high (Brassard et al., 2020; Hibbard et al.,
2012). Child Protective Services reported maltreatment cases show that psychological abuse
often occurs with other forms of child maltreatment but can also occur on its own (Brassard et
al., 2020).

27
Oftentimes psychological abuse communicates to a child that they are worthless,
unlovable, unwanted, expendable, and damaged which can have major effects on a child's
emotional well-being (Brassard et al., 2020). “Sticks and stones may hurt my bones, but words
will never hurt me” may be a commonly used phrase but in the case of child maltreatment this is
positively not the case. Psychological abuse plays a major role in a child’s emotional
development (Brassard et al., 2020; Petersen et al., 2014). When a child is experiencing a lack of
social bonds due to continuous psychological abuse and torment, they will have trouble forming
social relationships with, for example, peers and teachers (Brassard et al., 2020; Hibbard et al.,
2012; Petersen et al., 2014; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008). This type of consistent, diminishing abuse
during the first three years of a child’s life has been associated with attachment disorders,
socialization problems, and disruptive behaviour (Hibbard et al., 2012). Psychological abuse can
have major impacts on how a child identifies attachments and relationships to people around
them, especially parents or caregivers (Hibbard et al., 2012). Due to the complex influence a
parent and caregiver has on a child’s development, when a child receives abuse from these
important people in their lives their beliefs about themselves and how to interact with the people
around them change (Blomstrom et al., 2020; Cabrera et al., 2020; Garon-Bissonnette et al.,
2022; Herzog & Schmahl, 201; Hibbard et al., 2012; Nolvi et al, 2023; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008;
Teicher & Samson, 2013).
Play
It is evident that adverse experiences of maltreatment have large effects on a child's
neurological, social, cognitive, and emotional development. The time a parent or caregiver
spends with a child building connections through play has a bigger impact than most think it
does. Interactions with play in a child’s early years not only help with their brain development

28
and executive functioning but also the development of their personal resilience (Harvard
University, 2021; Whitebread et al., 2017). Starting at infancy, play is a critical component in
helping children with attention, problem-solving, memory, and self-control (Harvard University,
2021; Whitebread et al., 2017). Children benefit from all different types of play such as physical,
symbolic, pretend, and play with objects (Whitebread et al., 2017). Failure to engage in play will
result in significant consequences in childhood and continuing throughout adolescence (Almon,
2004).
Play gives children a sense of exercise, which aids in lifelong health, as well as engages
their creative and social minds (Almon, 2004; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008; Whitebread et al., 2017).
Engaging children in play and games that are challenging but not too frustrating for them, works
their self-regulation and physical skills that are rapidly developing during this time (Harvard
University, 2021; Whitebread et al., 2017). Research has shown that specifically for young boys,
physical play can improve their emotional awareness and social competence as well as have an
effect on their academic progress (Whitebread et al., 2017).
Games that include conversation, imitation, and hiding teach young children to focus,
self-control, attention skills, and use their working memory (Harvard University, 2021;
Whitebread et al., 2017). A game such as peekaboo can help engage a child in basic self-control
by letting them control when they open their parent's hands and reveal their face, as well as
works their memory as they are trying to remember who is hiding (Harvard University, 2021;
Whitebread et al., 2017). Making simple gestures to a child also aids in the development of their
self-control and attention (Harvard University, 2021; Whitebread et al., 2017). These types of
games are also a great way for a child to develop bonds with the people playing with them.

29
When a child develops strong social bonds with their parents, family, peers, and teachers,
they are less likely to commit criminal or deviant acts (Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008). This is an idea
from Travis Hirschi’s bonding theory which is composed of four elements; involvement, belief,
attachment, and commitment (Manuel, 2021; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008). When children establish
strong social ties to the significant people around them through things such as play, their ties to
conventional society also grow, creating less likelihood of committing a crime in the future
(Manuel, 2021; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008). Victims of maltreatment are more likely to show
insecure attachments as a result of their diminished emotional regulations, support systems, and
view of self (Garon-Bissonnette et al., 2022; Haslam & Taylor, 2022; Manuel, 2021; Ozbay &
Ozcan, 2008; Petersen et al., 2014; Teicher & Samson, 2013).
The COVID-19 pandemic is a good example to show how the removal of interactive play
with others outside of the family had an impact on children and their development. During the
pandemic, most children were closed off from social interactions with people other than their
family, leaving little diversity within their interactions and the social bonds they were able to
create (Kerker et al., 2023). As play and play-based interactions promote the growth of social
and emotional development, a lack of these aspects in a child's life poses negative outcomes
(Kerker et al., 2023). These negative outcomes can include many developmental delays such as
the ones mentioned in the section on brain development and milestones in children of this paper,
as well as trouble forming peer relationships (Kerker et al., 2023).
Resilience
While trauma can negatively affect someone's health and overall development, especially
if experienced during critical developmental periods, how someone responds to trauma can be
more indicative of the long-lasting effects than the trauma itself (Cabrera et al., 2020; Dias de

30
Castro Bins et al., 2020; Fox, 2019; Hart & Rubia, 2012; Manuel, 2021). Resilience is an
adaptive, positive response that can help explain why some individuals who experience child
maltreatment do not exhibit negative outcomes and can recover from the adversity they have
faced (Fox, 2019; Manuel, 2021; National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2015;
Yoon et al., 2019). Essentially, resilience turns toxic, unbearable stress into tolerable stress that
can be managed through strong social bonds and protective factors (Fox, 2019; Manuel, 2021;
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2015; Yoon et al., 2019).
Recently there has been an increase in studies done on resilience and how it can help
individuals who have experienced maltreatment to get past their trauma and cope effectively
(Yoon et al., 2019). Researchers believe that resilience is not a dichotomous attribute but rather
is developed through many different areas of someone’s life, both interpersonal predispositions
and external experiences (Fox, 2019; National Scientific Council on the Developing Child,
2015). There are many domains that can help with the development of resilience, bettering a
child’s overall well-being, and mental health when faced with adversity (Fox, 2019). While deep
emotion and suffering may surface from different forms of maltreatment or trauma, children who
are resilient are able to better cope and thrive notwithstanding all they have experienced (Fox,
2019).
Research has stated that an estimated two-thirds of resilient children have the tools to
overcome the adversity that comes with all forms of maltreatment (Fox, 2019). This resilience in
children can be strengthened through different individual, peer, family, school, and community
domains (Fox, 2019). These domains help children grow their relationships with the people
around them and use those interactions as a way to recover from the maltreatment. Referring
back to Hirschi’s bonding theory, these ties to conventional society through protective factors

31
help a child straighten not only their social bonds but also their view of themselves (Fox, 2019,
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2015; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008).
Protective factors can be used to measure juvenile delinquency but they are also a great
measure of resiliency, depending on the bonds created through the four domains. Protective
factors are defined by the Positive Achievement Change Tool and are virtually an extension of
the four domains listed above. The protective factors include criminal history, demographics,
school, use of free time, employment, relationships, family, alcohol and drugs, mental health,
attitude, aggression, and social skills (Baglivio et al., 2014). These protective factors will
fluctuate throughout an individual's life, having different effects at different times of their life
(Baglivio et al., 2014). In addition to having strong social ties, the presence of these protective
factors can help aid in a child’s level of resiliency to their trauma and maltreatment (Baglivio et
al., 2014; Fox, 2019; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008). These protective factors are essential for resilience
as they help to promote positive outcomes and reduce negative outcomes that are a result of
maltreatment.
Correlation with Criminal Behaviour
The discussion of critical factors of development discussed not only within this paper but
within numerous studies further the understanding of the course of criminal behaviour from
childhood to adolescence, through to adulthood. It is known that early adverse childhood
experiences such as maltreatment can have effects on behaviour and development but
additionally a link has been analyzed to criminal behaviour (Basto-Pereira et al., 2022; Fikiri &
Mkhize, 2023; Leschied et al., 2008). The research area into how these factors can predict
criminal behaviour in adulthood is known as developmental criminology (Leschied et al., 2008).

32
With developmental criminology, certain factors at specific ages can be identified for predicting
criminal behaviour later in life.
Throughout the analysis of many factors that have the potential to contribute to criminal
behaviour, the difficult task for researchers is identifying which factors have an impermanent
effect and which have a direct relation to difficulty in adulthood (Basto-Pereira et al., 2022;
Fikiri & Mkhize, 2023; Leschied et al., 2008). Expanding on Hirschi’s bonding theory,
individuals who have experienced maltreatment are more likely to be impacted due to the
damage done to these social and attachment bonds (Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008). If an individual has a
lack of social bonds and ideals of how relationships should operate, future relationships and
attachments may be difficult for them. This can result in a lack of support systems and protective
factors that were discussed earlier, potentially aiding in criminal behaviour (Ozbay & Ozcan,
2008).
Through the extensive literature that this thesis has covered, it is clear that neglect, abuse,
play, and resilience all play a role in the development of a child and have the potential to predict
criminality. The inclusion of a typical development of a child was found crucial for this literature
review as it is important to note how a child’s brain should be developing and the milestones
they should be hitting. In the previous sections, the experiences of maltreatment have shown
evidence that it affects aspects of brain structure, executive functioning, cognition, emotional
regulation, behavioural control, and relationship skills (Dias de Castro Bins et al., 2020; Nolvi et
al., 2023; Cabrera et al., 2020; Harvard University, 2024a; Haslam & Taylor, 2022; Pancost et
al., 2022; Winston & Chicot, 2016). Adolescents who have experienced their own form of
adverse experiences are up to 44 times more likely to be involved in fights, be a bully, and
perpetrate partner violence (Evans-Chase, 2014). It is also indicated that the older a child is when

33
experiencing these risk factors, the more likely a criminogenic outcome will occur (Basto-Pereira
et al., 2022; Fikiri & Mkhize, 2023; Leschied et al., 2008).
However, as seen with the research on resilience, maltreatment such as abuse and neglect
is not 100% indicative of criminal behaviour in adulthood. When a child has a strong
development of protective factors in their life they can better navigate through such adverse
experiences and trauma. An individual's trauma does not always define who they are or who they
will become. Many people who have experienced adverse experiences, maltreatment, or any
form of trauma can gain the ability to persevere through their difficulties and have the same life
as someone who had a typical childhood upbringing. By repairing the damage that has occurred
due to maltreatment, the act of resilience and having protective factors present in an individual's
life can help them stray away from criminal behaviour in the future.
Preventative Factors
Through properly allocated and timed interventions, the negative effects of maltreatment
can be reversed or reduced (Harvard University, 2024a). However, it takes more effort and work
than simply removing the child from the toxic environment to effectively create positive
outcomes for the child and their development (Harvard University, 2024a). Often when a child
has experienced trauma, maltreatment, or severe stress needs tremendous support and care to
mitigate the negative effects and to enable recovery (Green et al., 2020; Harvard University,
2024a). It can not be expected that a child be responsible for preventing their own neglect and
abuse, just as it is not their responsibility when the neglect and abuse happens to them.
Therefore, parental and caregiver prevention factors aid in the great reduction of these adverse
childhood experiences from occurring (Austin et al., 2020; Green et al., 2020; Younas &
Gutman, 2023).

34
Parents and caregivers having positive support networks have been shown to have
increased their overall well-being and reduced their stress (Austin et al., 2020; Younas &
Gutman, 2023). As mentioned earlier in the portion on parental involvement, parental
capabilities can have a potentially large effect on how a child is treated and the experiences they
have (Harvard University, 2024b). When a parent or caregiver has their own strong ties to their
parents, romantic partners, coworkers, and their community, they can be better equipped to not
cause harm in the form of deprivation, neglect, or abuse to their children (Harvard University,
2024b; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008; Younas & Gutman, 2023). In communities and neighbourhoods
that have an increase in close ties to other families around them, social cohesion, and social
control have lower rates of neglect, sexual abuse, and physical abuse reported to child protective
services (Austin et al., 2020).
While a child experiencing maltreatment is not able to manage or control the abuse or
neglect, social and emotional competence can help a child recover from such adverse
experiences. Characteristics such as self-regulation, self-esteem, social competence, and the
ability to adapt appropriately to situations have been shown to have a positive effect in relation to
experiencing neglect or abuse (Austin et al., 2020). A child’s ability to control their emotions and
behavioural responses in the midst of stressful situations is associated with more positive
outcomes after experiencing maltreatment (Austin et al., 2020). Protective factors and resilience
mentioned above also play a huge role in how maltreatment can affect a child from their youth
all the way into adulthood (Green et al., 2020; Haskett et al., 2006).
Regardless of the type of maltreatment present, all children could benefit from prevention
and intervention programs that have a strong focus on their mission to help children of
maltreatment. The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2015) provides that

35
“facilitating supportive adult-child relationships, building a sense of self-efficacy and perceived
control, providing opportunities to strengthen adaptive skills and self-regulatory capacities, and
mobilizing sources of faith, hope, and cultural traditions” are all positive factors that contribute
to helping maltreated children (p. 10).
Limitations
Among the many complex factors of child development in relation to criminal behaviour
in adulthood discussed, there are some limitations to this literature review. First and foremost,
this literature review does not provide any specific focus on how drug and alcohol abuse or
addiction can play a role in a child’s development or parental involvement. Additionally,
economic and familial factors were not discussed in length in relation to why neglect and abuse
may occur. The factors discussed throughout are also not an exhaustive list of factors that can
have a correlation with criminal behaviour in adulthood nor are they a list of definitive factors.
Another limitation of this literature review is that most of the research included in this
review stems from a Westernized way of life and it excludes other ways of life, cultures, and
beliefs that could potentially affect the results and correlation being discussed. Different racial
histories and upbringings are going to differ in different cultures and races and these factors are
not universal for all individuals. This is not a cohesive comprehensive correlation of child
development and adult criminality of cultures and races all around the world. In different
countries levels and prevalence of neglect and abuse may differ but this was not specified in this
paper. Although briefly discussed in relation to sexual abuse, there is not a separate discussion
on how the factors affect different genders.

36
Implications for Future Research
This literature review was conducted as a way to further the spread of knowledge on
factors that are involved in a child’s development and how those factors may impact criminal
behaviour later in their lives. Potential implications for future research into this prevalent issue
are to bring more awareness and understanding of how exactly maltreatment affects a child’s
development. More specifically, how preventative and protective factors can be utilized
efficiently to help children better cope and deal with their trauma. By establishing concrete
programs to help parents and caregivers get the support they need and better themselves as
individuals and caregivers, the children in their lives will benefit.
For future researchers a huge area of study would be the children who were at critical
ages in their development during the pandemic years and what changes have been made to their
development and behaviour throughout their life (Henke, 2023). There is still little knowledge
out there on how a pandemic of that magnitude has affected children socially and
psychologically, and the research is ignorant of how it will affect them later in their lives (Henke,
2023). It will be many years until the effects the pandemic had on young children's minds and
social competence but it will be an important area to measure and gain an understanding of
(Henke, 2023).
Lastly, a huge area that needs more definitive measurement and research is how risk
factors such as neglect and abuse play a role in environments with poverty, parental mental
illness, and differing parenting styles (Haslam & Taylor, 2022; McLaughlin et al, 2019). The
varying cases of maltreatment are vastly different in their own ways and examining specifically
how small daily interactions, such as having strict parents, could educate researchers further. Not

37
only would it expand the knowledge of the differing factors in the field, but it would also help
preventative programs be better equipped to establish an effective plan of action.
Conclusion
This literature review demonstrated how brain development and milestones in children
and social and environmental factors, play a role in the development of a child both mentally and
physically and how it correlates with criminal behaviour in adulthood. Through the extensive
review of literature on this area, it is concluded that maltreatment can cause severe
developmental delays and behavioural difficulties (Cabrera et al., 2020; DuMont et al, 2007;
Fox, 2019; Hart & Rubia, 2012; Harvard University, 2024a; Kerker et al., 2023; Zhuo et al.,
2022). Due to the plasticity and how malleable a young child’s brain is, maltreatment causes
behavioural, psychological, physical, and social deficits that have long-lasting consequences
(Fox, 2019; Korgaonkar, et al., 2023; National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2015;
Nolvi et al., 2023; Pancost et al., 2022; Yoon et al., 2021).
In addition to those long-term risk consequences, play and resilience have been shown to
have positive outcomes for children who have survived maltreatment (Baglivio et al., 2014; Fox,
2019; Harvard University, 2021; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008; Whitebread et al., 2017).). With the
inclusion of Hirschi’s social bonding theory, resilience, and play, this literature review was able
to encompass the way that a child can turn their intolerable toxic stress into tolerable stress from
which they can recover (Almon, 2004; Harvard University, 2021; Ozbay & Ozcan, 2008;
Whitebread et al., 2017). Interactions with parents or caregivers greatly increase a child’s sense
of self, emotional regulation, self-control, and social competence (Harvard University, 2021;
Whitebread et al., 2017).

38
Not all children who experience maltreatment are going to exhibit criminal behaviour in
adulthood, but the types of maltreatment mentioned in this literature review give an extensive
look into potential risk factors. These risk factors are not universally concrete for each child who
experiences maltreatment but they can be used as a tool to indicate potential future criminality.
Although this review included some limitations including the involvement of alcohol and drug
abuse, and race, culture, and gender differences, the overall themes of this research were
highlighted and discussed in appropriate length for this review.
It is the hope that this research can further educate someone on the factors in childhood
that affect brain development, social and romantic relationships, crucial milestones, and much
more and how we can connect those factors back to those same children when they begin to
partake in criminal behaviour. Through the exploration of psychological development in children
through social and environmental factors and its correlation with criminal behaviour in
adulthood, the literature is extensive. This literature review poses as a tool that can be used to
further the understanding of psychologists, development specialists, criminal justice workers,
youth workers, and even parents on this topic. Through this descriptive thematic analysis of the
existing literature, the research question has been mined to the best ability in consideration of
time and resources. While exploring this correlation in detail it can determine the effects of such
social and environmental factors in childhood and how these experiences navigate criminal
behaviour in later life. The investigation of neglect, abuse, resilience, play, parental involvement,
and traumatic experiences through a comprehensive synopsis gives those in this field an
informative summary of what is being found.
Not only is this information important to those in the academic fields, but this research
aids in helping parents seek help and bring attention to how they can help those children

39
experiencing adverse experiences. By pursuing a literature review in this area of research, a
greater understanding of the risk factors of maltreatment and how protective and preventative
factors can help are established. Through this understanding, more knowledge on how to help
children who are experiencing maltreatment can be implemented. This critical analysis of the
existing literature exists now as an instrument that those in this field can use. This thesis takes
away the time-consuming work and effort that it would take to analyze the literature discussed
and creates a conceptualized summary of the information that is out there. The main
consideration for doing a literature review on this area of research is that there are copious
amounts of valuable information out there on this topic that is crucial for parents, caregivers,
teachers, and any individual who is interacting with children daily. The value of this thesis is
insurmountable due to the knowledge that is being covered in such a condensed way.

40
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