1 T h e S o ci all y A c c e pt a bl e N C R M D D ef e n c e By C at h ari n e P a n dil a U n d er t h e S u p er visi o n of Pr of ess or J o h n Wi nt er d y k A n H o n o urs Pr oj e ct s u b mitt e d I n p arti al f ulfill m e nt of t h e D e gr e e r e q uir e m e nts f or t h e d e gr e e of B a c h el or of Arts – Cri mi n al J usti c e ( H o n o urs) M o u nt R o y al U ni v ersit y D at e S u b mitt e d: A pril 2 0 2 2 2 T a bl e of C o nt e nts A bstr a ct 4 I ntr o d u cti o n: T h e So ci all y A c c e pt a bl e N C R M D D ef e n c e 5 M et h o d ol o g y 5 W h at is N C R M D 7 N C R M D L e gisl ati o n 9 Hist or y of N C R M D 9 Bill C - 3 0 11 R v S w ai n 11 Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a 12 Ot h er 13 C o urt C as es I m p a cti n g N C R M D R ef or m Bill C - 1 0 14 Bill C - 1 4 14 G a ps i n t h e Hist or y of N C R M D R ef or m 15 Cri mi n ol o gi c al T h e ori es a n d N C R M D 16 Cl assi c al T h e ori es of Cri m e 17 P ositi vist T h e ori es of Cri m e 17 S u m m ar y of Cri mi n ol o gi c al T h e ori es 18 S o ci et y’s U n d erst a n di n g of J usti c e 18 P oliti cs a n d N C R M D 19 B e n efits a n d Li mit ati o ns of N C R M D 20 B e n efits of N C R M D 20 Li mit ati o ns of N C R M D 21 C as e St u di es of N C R M D 23 N C R M D D ef e n c e, C as e 1. M att h e w d e Gr o o d 23 N C R M D D ef e n c e, C as e 2. Vi n c e nt W ei g u a n g Li 25 N C R M D D ef e n c e, C as e 3. All a n S c h o e n b or n 27 O v er all P u bli c P er c e pti o ns of N C R M D M e di a, S o ci al M e di a, a n d N C R M D 29 31 3 F ut ur e Dir e cti o ns: N C R M D R ef or m a n d P at h w a ys t o S o ci al A c c e pt a n c e 34 Th e N a m e of N C R M D 35 N C R M D a n d R est or ati v e J usti c e 39 F or ms of R est or ati v e J usti c e 39 Alt er n ati v es t o R etri b uti v e J usti c e 42 C o n n e cti o n Bet w e e n R est or ati v e J usti c e a n d N C R M D 42 C o n cl usi o n 44 R ef er e n c es 47 4 A bst r a ct N ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er ( N C R M D) is a n e c ess ar y b ut oft e n u n k n o w n a n d u n d er a p pr e ci at e d l e g al d ef e n c e, us e d t o di v ert off e n d ers fr o m t h e cri mi n al j usti c e str e a m t o t h e m e di c al str e a m w h e n s uff eri n g fr o m m e nt al h e alt h iss u es t h at i m p air u n d erst a n di n g f or t h eir cri mi n alit y. N C R M D i n v ari o us c a p a citi es h as h a d a l o n g hist or y i n C a n a di a n j usti c e, y et r es e ar c h s u g g ests C a n a di a ns r e m ai n u n a w ar e of h o w N C R M D w or ks, a n d w h y t his l e g al d ef e n c e is n e c ess ar y. L a c k of u n d erst a n di n g s urr o u n di n g N C R M D h as l e d t o mis c o n c e pti o ns i n t h e p u bli c a b o ut t his j u di ci al d ef e n c e , a n d c o nti n u e d sti g m ati z ati o n t o w ar ds m e nt al ill n ess. A d efi niti o n a n d hist or y of N C M R D is s u m m ari z e d, al o n g wit h a n o utli n e of N C R M D l e gisl ati o n i n C a n a d a, lit er at ur e e x a mi ni n g cri mi n ol o gi c al t h e ori es, a n d a n e x pl or ati o n of s o ci et y’s u n d erst a n di n g of j usti c e. R es e ar c h als o e x pl or e d t h e b e n efits a n d li mit ati o ns of t h e N C R M D s yst e m b as e d o n p er c e pti o ns e x pr ess e d t hr o u g h m e di a. T hr o u g h a C a n a di a n l e ns , t his r es e ar c h s u m m ari z es t hr e e w ell- d o c u m e nt e d c as e s w h er e N C R M D w as t h e s u c c essf ul d ef e n c e : R v d e Gr o o d , 2 0 1 6 A B Q B 2 9 4; Vi n c e nt Li; R v S c h o e n b or n , 2 0 1 0 B C S C 2 2 0. T h es e c as es h a v e b e e n wi d el y dis c uss e d i n t h e m e di a, a n d ar e r ef er e n c e d fr e q u e ntl y t hr o u g h o ut t his t h esis. T h e s e c as e s u m m ari es als o i n cl u d e vi cti m a n d off e n d er st at e m e nts, s p e a ki n g t o vi cti m/ off e n d er e x p eri e n c es wit hi n t h e N C R M D s yst e m. T his t h esis c o n cl u d es wit h a n a n al ysis of p er c e pti o ns o n N C R M D e x pr ess e d t hr o u g h t h e m e di a, a f o c us o n t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e, h o w as p e cts of N C R M D a n d r est or ati v e j usti c e ali g n , a n d dr a w i n g c o n cl usi o ns ar o u n d t h e vi a bilit y f or N C R M D r ef or m i n C a n a d a. K e y w or ds : N ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e, N C R M D, R e vi e w B o ar d, m e nt al ill n ess, sti g m a 5 T h e S o ci all y A c c e pt a bl e N C R M D D ef e n c e E x e m pti o n fr o m cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y d u e t o a n off e n c e b ei n g c o m mitt e d as a r es ult of a m e nt al dis or d er , h as li v e d wit hi n t h e C a n a di a n cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m f or m a n y y e ars ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). It e xists d u e t o t h e f o u n d ati o n al b eli ef t h at t h e cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m r e c o g ni z es t h os e w h o ar e m or all y i n n o c e nt w h e n ass essi n g g uilt ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 9). T h er e is a l o n g hist or y of est a blis h e d i ns a nit y d ef e n c e c as es i n C a n a d a f or o v er 1 0 0 y e ars ( G o oss e ns et al., 2 0 2 1). N ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er ( N C R M D ) r es e ar c h is br o a d, i n cl u di n g t h e hist or y of N C R M D, N C R M D l e gisl ati o n t hr o u g h t h e y e ars, u n d erst a n di n g w h o N C R M D s er v es, a p pr e ci ati n g h o w s o ci et y p er c ei v es j usti c e wit hi n N C R M D, o p er ati o n ali zi n g t h e d efi niti o n of N C R M D, a n d e v al u ati n g N C R M D a n d its ti es t o r est or ati v e j usti c e. T h e ai m of t his r es e ar c h is t o a ns w er t h e r es e ar c h q u esti o n: h o w h a v e p er c e pti o ns t o w ar ds N C R M D a n d m e nt al ill n ess i m p a ct e d s o ci et y’s vi e w of t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e, a n d is t h er e merit t o ( or w h at b e n efit c o ul d b e r e ali z e d fr o m) i niti ati n g r ef or m a n d m o d er ni zi n g t h e l e g al d ef e n c e of N C R M D ? T h e p er c e pti o ns of N C R M D fr o m t h e st a n d p oi nt of vi cti ms, off e n d ers, a n d t h e p u bli c i n cl u di n g p oliti c al r ef er e n c es will b e r e p ort e d . E x pl ori n g t h es e p ositi o ns b y u n c o v eri n g p er c e pti o ns, c o m p ari n g t h e ori es a n d m e as uri n g a g ai nst o bs er v ati o ns, s u p p orts t h e h y p ot h esis t h at N C R M D c a n b e s e e n as a m or e a p pr e ci at e d a n d s o ci all y a c c e pt e d d ef e n c e. M et h o d ol o g y R es e ar c hi n g t h e b a c k gr o u n d of N C R M D i n C a n a d a t o u n d erst a n d o v er all p er c e pti o ns of t h e N C R M D l e g al d ef e n c e is o p er ati o n ali z e d t hr o u g h t his r es e ar c h b y e x pl ori n g t h e hist or y of N C R M D, cri mi n ol o gi c al t h e ori es of cri m e, h o w s o ci et y vi e ws j usti c e, r es e ar c hi n g t h e b e n efits a n d li mit ati o ns of N C R M D a n d l o o ki n g at N C R M D c as e st u di es. T h e m et h o d ol o g y f or t his r es e ar c h e x pl ai ns t h e pr o c ess f or h o w t h es e ar e as will b e e x pl or e d, i n p urs uit of a ns w eri n g t h e 6 q u esti o n: b as e d o n t h e r es e ar c h of l e gisl ati o n, p u bli c p er c e pti o ns, a n d us e of t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e, is N C R M D r ef or m r e q uir e d ? T h e r es e ar c h f or t his t h esis e m pl o ys a q u alit ati v e a p pr o a c h, i n cl u di n g d at a c oll e cti o n a n d lit er at ur e r e vi e w, e x pl ori n g b ot h p e er -r e vi e w e d a n d gr e y lit er at ur e. Gr e y lit er at ur e is d es cri b e d as a t hr e e ti er pr o c ess: t h e first ti er i n cl u des p u bli c ati o ns, g o v er n m e nt r e p orts a n d b o o k c h a pt ers; t h e s e c o n d ti er i n cl u des n e ws arti cl es; t h e t hir d ti er i n cl u des bl o gs a n d t w e ets ( A d a ms et al., 2 0 1 6). T h er e is b e n efit t o i n cl u di n g gr e y lit er at ur e i n r es e ar c h, w h er e gr e y lit er at ur e a u g m e nt e d p e er -r e vi e w e d lit er at ur e a n d w as s e e n as a g a p-fill m e as ur e, i n cl u di n g i nf or m ati o n n ot al w a ys r e p ort e d i n a c a d e mi c writi n g ( A d a ms et al., 2 0 1 6). T h e lit er at ur e r e vi e w f or t his r es e a r c h is pri m aril y of C a n a di a n f o c us, asi d e fr o m dis c ussi o n of t h e i n c e pti o n of N C R M D a n d pr o gr a ms wit hi n t h e r est or ati v e j usti c e fi el d, w hi c h i n cl u d e r ef er e n c e t o r es e ar c h o utsi d e of C a n a d a. T h e N C R M D c as es r e vi e w e d i n t his t h esis ar e s ol el y of C a n a di a n f o cus. Me di a r e p orts i d e ntifi e d f or t his r es e ar c h ar e cit e d f or t h e p ur p os e of g at h eri n g q u ot es fr o m vi ctims a n d off e n d ers. M e di a r e p orts ( a t y p e of s e c o n d ti er gr e y lit er at ur e) is t h e pri m ar y s o ur c e of gr e y lit er at ur e i n t his r es e ar c h, a n d r e pr es e nts first- h a n d a c c o u nts of e x pl ai ni n g i n t h eir o w n w or ds h o w vi cti ms a n d off e n d ers p er c ei v e t h e s yst e m of N C R M D. T his a p pr o a c h is e m pl o y e d wit h t h e g o al of u n d erst a n di n g t h e n e e ds of us ers of t h e N C R M D s yst e m. Gr e y lit er at ur e t hr o u g h m e di a r e p orti n g off ers t h e o p p ort u nit y t o h e ar t h e w or ds of t h os e i m p a ct e d b y N C R M D i n t h e a bs e n c e of pri m ar y d at a c oll e cti o n. Li mit ati o ns of t his r es e ar c h i n cl u d e t h e a bs e n c e of pri m ar y d at a c oll e cti o n, w hi c h w o ul d gr e atl y b e n efit f ut ur e r es e ar c h o n t his s u bj e ct, i n c oll e cti n g first- h a n d a c c o u nts fr o m vi cti ms a n d off e n d ers r at h er t h a n r el yi n g o n q u ot es i n t h e m e di a. 7 Lit er at ur e r e g ar di n g p er c e pti o ns of N C R M D is o ut d at e d a n d u n d erst u di e d ( G o oss e ns et al., ( 2 0 2 1). T h e y ar g u e d t h at r es e ar c h dis c ussi n g p u bli c o pi ni o n o n N C R M D h as d e cli n e d ( G o oss e ns et al., 2 0 2 1). T h es e g a ps i n lit er at ur e hi g hli g ht t h e c o n n e cti o n b et w e e n t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e a n d t h e o p p ort u nit y t o e x p a n d r es e ar c h as it r el at es t o u n d erst a n di n g p u bli c p er c e pti o ns t o w ar ds NC R M D. W h at is N C R M D N C R M D is a l e g al d ef e n c e i n C a n a d a, a v ail a bl e t o t h os e f o u n d g uilt y of a n off e n c e w h o di d n ot h a v e t h e m e nt al c a p a cit y t o u n d erst a n d t h e ir b e h a vi o ur w as wr o n g ( Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7) . It is als o r ef err e d t o as b ei n g i n c a p a cit at e d b y a m e nt al dis or d er ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). Off e n d ers f o u n d N C R M D ar e e x e m pt fr o m cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y (Cri mi n al C o d e , R S C 1 9 8 5, c, C- 4 6, s 6 7 2. 3 4). T h e S u pr e m e C o urt of C a n a d a ( S C C) e c h o e d t his d efi niti o n, st ati n g N C R M D is a n e x e m pti o n fr o m cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y a n d a n e x e m pti o n fr o m cri mi n al li a bilit y ( R v S c h o e n b or n , 2 0 1 0 B C S C 2 2 0, at p ar a 2 2). “ Alt h o u g h e x p ert m e di c al e vi d e n c e is t y pi c all y us e d t o s u p p ort a fi n di n g of m e nt al dis or d er, N C R M D is a l e g al r at h er t h a n a s ci e ntifi c fi n di n g ” ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 9, p. 6). N C R M D is si mil ar t o t h e d ef e n c e of N ot G uilt y b y R e as o n of I ns a nit y ( N G RI) i n t h e U nit e d St at es ( G o oss e ns et al., 2 0 2 1; Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7). Off e n d ers w h o s u c c essf ull y cl ai m N C R M D will b y p ass t h e cri mi n al j usti c e str e a m a n d i nst e a d r e c ei v e tr e at m e nt wit hi n t h e m e nt al h e alt h s yst e m ( H a a g et al., 2 0 2 1). A f urt h er e x pl a n ati o n st at es, “ T h e l a w r e c o g ni z es t h at i n s o m e c as es, a p ers o n’s m e nt al c a p a cit y f ails t o m e et t h e b asi c el e m e nts r e q uir e d f or p arti ci p ati o n i n t h e cri mi n al pr o c ess ” ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 8, p. 5). 8 T h e m aj orit y of t h os e cl ai mi n g N C R M D w er e di a g n os e d wit hi n t h e ps y c h osis s p e ctr u m, wit h m a n y off e n d ers n ot h a vi n g c o m mitt e d vi ol e nt cri m es, a n d m ost h a d l o w r e ci di vis m r at es (M e nt al H e alt h C o m missi o n of C a n a d a, 2 0 1 3). T h e i nt er pr et ati o n of m e nt al dis or d er is o utli n e d i n s e cti o n 6 7 2 of t h e Cri mi n al C o d e , al o n g wit h a p pli c a bl e d efi niti o ns, R e vi e w B o ar d r e g ul ati o ns, r ul es s urr o u n di n g u nfit t o st a n d tri al v ers us m e nt al dis or d ers, ass ess m e nt r e p orts, a n d v er di ct r e q uir e m e nts of N C R M D ( Cri mi n al C o d e , R S C 1 9 8 5, c, C- 4 6, s 6 7 2, 1- 9 5). S e cti o n 6 7 2. 5 4 dis c uss es t h e t hr e e dis p ositi o ns a v ail a bl e t o a R e vi e w B o ar d w h e n d et er mi ni n g s e nt e n c es f or N C R M D, wit h c o nsi d er ati o n t o w ar ds t h e dis c h ar g e b ei n g “t h e l e ast o n er o us a n d l e ast r estri cti v e t o t h e a c c us e d ” ( G o v er n m e nt of C a n a d a, n. d.). T h e t hr e e dis p ositi o ns, o utli n e d i n s e cti o n 6 7 2. 5 4 of t h e Cri mi n al C o d e , a n d e x p a n d e d u p o n b y Cr o c k er et al., ( 2 0 1 5), G o oss e ns et al. ( 2 0 2 1), a n d W a k efi el d ( 2 0 2 1), i n cl u d e: • A bs ol ut e dis c h ar g e, m e a ni n g fr e e d o m fr o m a ut h orit y, wit h o ut c o n diti o ns. • C o n diti o n al dis c h ar g e, w hi c h all o ws off e n d ers t o li v e i n t h e c o m m u nit y u n d er r estri cti o ns a n d s u p er visi o n. • D et e nti o n i n c ust o d y/ h os pit al, als o r ef err e d t o as f ull w arr a nt, i n cl u d es d et e nti o n i n a m e nt al h os pit al or a p pr o v e d gr o u p h o m e. N C R M D off e n d ers will b e s u bj e ct t o a n n u al r e vi e w of t h eir dis p ositi o n ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). T h e ti mi n g of t h e r e vi e w is l e gisl at e d b ut t h e c ert ai nt y of a r el e as e d at e is n ot ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). T h e N C R M D off e n d er w h o is d esi g n at e d hi g h-ris k a c c us e d will h a v e t h eir dis p ositi o n r e vi e w e d e v er y t hr e e y e ars ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). 9 N C R M D L e gisl ati o n N C R M D is d efi n e d i n s e cti o n 1 6 of t h e Cri mi n al C o d e as t h e “ D ef e n c e of m e nt al dis or d er ” ( Cri mi n al C o d e , R S C 1 9 8 5, c, C- 4 6, s 1 6, 1- 3). S e cti o n 1 6 dis c uss es cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y a n d t h e b ur d e n of pr o of, w hi c h st at es: “ 1 6( 1) N o p ers o n is cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e f or a n a ct c o m mitt e d or a n o missi o n m a d e w hil e s uff eri n g fr o m a m e nt al dis or d er t h at r e n d er e d t h e p ers o n i n c a p a bl e of a p pr e ci ati n g t h e n at ur e a n d q u alit y of t h e a ct or o missi o n or of k n o wi n g t h at it w as wr o n g. 1 6( 2) E v er y p ers o n is pr es u m e d n ot t o s uff er fr o m a m e nt al dis or d er s o as t o b e e x e m pt fr o m cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y b y virt u e of s u bs e cti o n ( 1), u ntil t h e c o ntr ar y is pr o v e d o n t h e b al a n c e of pr o b a biliti es. 1 6( 3) T h e b ur d e n of pr o of t h at a n a c c us e d w as s uff eri n g fr o m a m e nt al dis or d er s o as t o b e e x e m pt fr o m cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y is o n t h e p art y t h at r ais es t h e iss u e. ” ( Cri mi n al C o d e , R S C 1 9 8 5, c, C- 4 6, s 1 6, 1- 3). T h e Cri mi n al C o d e is l e gisl at e d f e d er all y, wit h m e nt al h e alt h a n d cri mi n al j usti c e s er vi c es b ei n g a d mi nist er e d pr o vi n ci all y ( Cr o c k er et al., 2 0 1 5). Hist o r y of N C R M D T h e i ns a nit y d ef e n c e h as e xist e d i n C a n a d a si n c e t h e mi d 1 8 0 0’s, wit h fr e q u e nt r ef er e n c e t o t h e l a n d m ar k c as e of D a ni el M’ N a g ht e n ( H u nt et al., 2 0 1 9; M c L a c hli n, 2 0 1 0; Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7). M’ N a g ht e n, h a vi n g s h ot a n d kill e d s e cr et ar y t o t h e Britis h pri m e mi nist er, E d w ar d Dr u m m o n d i n 1 8 4 3, w as a c q uitt e d b y r e as o n of i ns a nit y ( H u nt et al., 2 0 1 9). M’ N a g ht e n s uff er e d fr o m m e nt al ill n ess ( M cL a c hli n, 2 0 1 0). N e g ati v e p u bli c r e a cti o n t o t h e j ur y d e cisi o n of i ns a nit y i n M’ N a g ht e n’s c as e c a us e d hi g h er c o urt s t o pr o m ul g at e t h e d efi niti o n of i ns a nit y wit hi n j u di ci al s yst e ms, k n o w n as t h e M’ N a g ht e n R ul es ( H u nt et al. , 2 0 1 9; M c L a c hli n, 2 0 1 0). 11 Bill C - 3 0 A n a m e n d m e nt t o t h e Cri mi n al C o d e i n 1 9 9 2 i ntr o d u c e d n e w l e gisl ati o n, wit h t h e p ur p os e of pr o vi di n g f air tr e at m e nt f or t h e a c c us e d w hil e still pr ot e cti n g t h e p u bli c fr o m d a n g er ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). A c c or di n g t o Pil o n ( 2 0 0 2), 1 9 8 6 s a w i niti al dis c ussi o ns of r ef or m t o t h e m e nt al dis or d er d ef e n c e w hi c h t h e n b e c a m e Bill C - 3 0 i n 1 9 9 2. Bill C - 3 0, i ntr o d u c e d i n 1 9 9 2, w as r ef err e d t o as a n “ o v er h a ul of t h e m e nt al dis or d er r e gi m e ”, wit h c h a n g es l e a di n g t o a n i n cr e as e i n off e n d ers usi n g t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 4 8). Bill C- 3 0 as it r el at es t o N C R M D i n cl u d e d: e x p a n di n g t h e d ef e n c e t o i n cl u d e s u m m ar y c o n vi cti o ns, m or e a ut o n o m y pr o vi d e d t o c o urts i n assi g ni n g t h e dis p ositi o n ( w hi c h r e m o v e d r ef er e n c e t o t h e r ol e of t h e Li e ut e n a nt G o v er n or), gi vi n g c o urts gr e at er a c c ess i n o bt ai ni n g ps y c hi atri c ass ess m e nts, a n d gi vi n g pr o vi n c es r es p o nsi bilit y f or a ut o n o m o usl y e n a cti n g t h eir o w n pr o vi n ci al R e vi e w B o ar d ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). T h e n a m e of t h e d ef e n c e w as als o c h a n g e d t o ‘ n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er’ ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). H u nt et al. ( 2 0 1 9) dis c uss e d t h e d efi ni n g as p e cts of t w o C a n a di a n l a n d m ar k c as es : R v S w ai n ( 1 9 9 1) a n d Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a ( 1 9 9 9) as it p ert ai ns t o N C R M D r ef or m , wit h Bill C- 3 0 b ei n g i m pl e m e nt e d b e c a us e of S w ai n . S w ai n a n d Wi n k o h el d si g nifi c a n c e i n h o w t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e w as r ef or m e d, as it r el at es t o t h e ri g hts of N C R M D a c c us e d a n d h o w R e vi e w B o ar ds a dj u di c at e dis p ositi o ns ( H a a g et al., 2 0 2 1 ). R v S w ai n ( 1 9 9 1) O w e n S w ai n w as f o u n d n ot g uilt y b y r e as o n of i ns a nit y i n t h e off e n c e of ass a ult a g ai ns t his f a mil y i n 1 9 8 3 a n d w as d et ai n e d u n d er t h e Li e ut e n a nt G o v er n or W arr a nts s yst e m ( M c L a c hli n, 2 0 1 0). B e c a us e of his a ut o m ati c d et e nti o n, w hi c h di d n ot i n cl u d e a h e ari n g, S w ai n 12 br o u g ht f or w ar d a c o nstit uti o n al c h all e n g e t o t h e S u pr e m e C o urt of C a n a d a ( S C C) i n 1 9 9 1 ( M c L a c hli n, 2 0 1 0). T h e S w ai n d e cisi o n at t h e S C C st at e d a p ers o n s h o ul d n ot b e h el d “i n d efi nit el y at t h e pl e as ur e of t h e Li e ut e n a nt G o v er n or ”, as w as t h e c as e pri or t o t h e S w ai n r uli n g ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 4 5). T h e S w ai n d e cisi o n li mit e d a Re vi e w B o a r d’s a ut h orit y t o d et ai n t h e a c q uitt e d wit h o ut e n d, s e e n t o i m pr o p erl y d e pri v e t h e off e n d er’s li b ert y ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). Pri or t o t h e c as e of R v S w ai n , t h e s af et y of t h e p u bli c s u p ers e d e d t h e fr e e d o m of t h e N C R M D off e n d er ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). C o n c er ns r ais e d r e g ar di n g a s e cti o n 7 C h art er i nfri n g e m e nt d uri n g t h e S w ai n d e cisi o n w as t h e i m p et us b e hi n d t h e c h a n g es t o t h e Cri mi n al C o d e as it r el at es t o m e nt al dis or d er, wit h s u c h c h a n g es c o mi n g i nt o eff e ct i n 1 9 9 2 ( R v Pi n et , 1 9 9 5 C a n LII 3 7 1 ( O N C A)). Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a ( 1 9 9 9) T h e a p p e al of a R e vi e w B o ar d’s dis p ositi o n d e cisi o n br o u g ht a b o ut t h e c as e of Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a ( 1 9 9 9) ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). H a vi n g a hist or y of m e nt al ill n ess a n d a di a g n osis of s c hi z o p hr e ni a, J os e p h Wi n k o w as arr est e d i n 1 9 8 3 aft er att a c ki n g t w o p e o pl e wit h a k nif e (Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a , 1 9 9 9 2 S. C. R. 6 2 5 at p ar a . 3). T h e c as e of Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a w as i m p ort a nt as it e x p a n d e d o n t h e d efi niti o n of si g nifi c a nt t hr e at, r es ulti n g i n t h e el a b or at e d d efi niti o n b ei n g c o difi e d i nt o t h e Cri mi n al C o d e : “si g nifi c a nt t hr e at m e a ns t h e a c c us e d p os es a r e al ris k of s eri o us p h ysi c al or ps y c h ol o gi c al h ar m t o m e m b ers of t h e p u bli c ” ( W al k er-R e ns h a w & M cI nt yr e, 2 0 1 8, p ar a. 3). I n t h e S C C c as e of Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a , s e cti o n 6 7 2. 5 4 of t h e Cri mi n al C o d e w as r ef er e n c e d, st ati n g a n a c c us e d w h o f alls u n d er t h e s u c c essf ul d ef e n c e of N C R M D c a n n ot b e h el d if t h e R e vi e w B o ar d d o es n ot d e e m t h at p ers o n a si g nifi c a nt t hr e at t o p u bli c s af et y ( W al k er - R e ns h a w & M cI nt yr e, 2 0 1 8). T h e Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a S C C d e cisi o n als o r ei nf or c e d t h e pri n ci p l e t h at e vi d e n c e n ot pr es u m pti o n m ust s u p p ort si g nifi c a nt t hr e at, a n d 13 t h at t h e c o n d u ct of t h e off e n d er n e e ds t o b e d e e m e d cri mi n al as o p p os e d t o i n ci d e nt al ( W al k erR e ns h a w & M cI nt yr e, 2 0 1 8). R es e ar c h s h o ws t h at Wi n k o v Britis h C ol u m bi a w as a d efi ni n g c as e as it r el at es t o t h e dis p ositi o n of t h e a c c us e d, b al a n c e d wit h t h e s af et y of t h e p u bli c, q u oti n g S C C J usti c e M c L a c hli n f or t h e m aj orit y, “J usti c e r e q uir es t h at t h e N C R a c c us e d b e a c c or d e d as m u c h li b ert y as is c o m p ati bl e wit h p u bli c s af et y ” ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 4 9). Ot h e r C o u rt C as es I m p a cti n g N C R M D R ef o r m Alt h o u g h i m p a ctf ul, b ut n ot r ef er e n c e d as wi d el y as S w ai n a n d Wi n k o , r es e ar c h dis c uss e d a d diti o n al c o urt c a s es r el e v a nt t o t h e i niti ati o n of N C R M D r ef or m . T h e a p p e al of Pi n et v St. T h o m as ( 2 0 0 4) is o n e s u c h c as e. I n t h e a p p e al, Pi n et w as f o u n d n ot g uilt y b y r e as o n of i ns a nit y (t h e hist ori c al n a m e of t h e d ef e n c e) o n f o ur c o u nts of m ur d er d ati n g b a c k t o 1 9 7 6 (R v Pi n et , 1 9 9 5 C a n LII 3 7 1 ( O N C A)). At his r e vi e w h e ari n g i n 1 9 9 3, Pi n et, still h o us e d i n a m a xi m u ms e c urit y f a cilit y si n c e t h e l at e 1 9 7 0s, a p p e al e d t o m o v e t o a m e di u m- s e c urit y f a cilit y, s e e n as b ei n g l e ast o n er o us o n t h e off e n d er a n d r ef er e n ci n g t h e S w ai n de cisi o n ( R v Pi n et , 1 9 9 5 C a n LII 3 7 1 ( O N C A)). T h e S C C Pi n et v St. T h o m as d e cisi o n e m p h asi z e d t h e i m p ort a n c e of t h e b al a n c e of t h e off e n d er’s li b ert y a n d t h at of p u bli c s af et y, wit h t h e s af et y of t h e p u bli c hi g hli g ht e d w h e n it c o m es t o a R e vi e w B o ar d c o nsi d eri n g d e cisi o ns of dis c h ar g e f or t h e N C R M D a c q uitt e d ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). R es e ar c h i d e ntifi e d a d diti o n al c as es t h at h a d r el e v a n c e t o C h art er c h all e n g es i n S C C d e cisi o ns r el at e d t o N C R M D. T h es e c as es i n cl u d e d: R v C h a ul k, 1 9 9 0, a n d R v C o o p er , 1 9 8 0 ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 9), as w ell as P e n et a n g uis hi n e M e nt al H e alt h C e nt er v O nt ari o , 2 0 0 4 ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). 14 Bill C - 1 0 Bill C - 1 0, i ntr o d u c e d i n 2 0 0 5, w as a n a m e n d m e nt t o t h e Cri mi n al C o d e i n r ef er e n c e t o d e ali n g wit h m e nt all y ill off e n d ers ( Gr a nt h a m, 2 0 1 4). Alt h o u g h s c a nt m e nti o n of Bill C - 1 0 i n r es e ar c h e x pl or e d o n N C R M D f or t his t h esis, Gr a nt h a m ( 2 0 1 4) st at e d Bill C- 1 0 str e n gt h e n e d vi cti m ri g hts a n d off er e d l ess r e g ar d f or off e n d ers. R es e ar c h st at e d t his bill r e p e al e d dis p ositi o n c a p pi n g pr o visi o ns, a d d e d t h e a bilit y f or vi cti ms t o pr es e nt i mp a ct st at e m e nts at dis p ositi o n h e ari n gs w h er e a p pli c a bl e, pr o vi d e d n oti c e u p o n r e q u est t o vi cti ms of dis p ositi o n h e ari n gs, a n d t h e a bilit y i n c ert ai n cir c u mst a n c es t o e xt e n d o c c urr e n c e of dis p ositi o n r e vi e ws ( Gr a nt h a m, 2 0 1 4). Bill C - 1 4, P r o cl ai m e d as Bill C- 5 4, a n d als o k n o w n as t h e N ot Cri mi n all y R es p o nsi bl e R ef or m A ct R es e ar c h o n t his bill s h o w e d t hr e e n a m es it is r ef err e d t o: Bill C - 1 4; pr o cl ai m e d as Bill C- 5 4; a n d t h e N ot Cri mi n all y R es p o nsi bl e R ef or m A ct ( N C R R A). T h e us e of t h es e t hr e e n a m es v ar i es b y a ut h or. Bill C - 1 4, br o u g ht t o lif e i n 2 0 1 4 d uri n g t h e r ei g n of f or m er Pri m e Mi nst er t o C a n a d a, St e p h e n H ar p er, w as e n a ct e d b y t h e f e d er al g o v er n m e nt t o a m e n d s e cti o ns of t h e Cri mi n al C o d e a n d t h e N ati o n al D ef e n c e A ct , as it r el at es t o m e nt al h e alt h ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). Bill C - 1 4 w as r e p ort e d as c o ntr o v ersi al, a n d “t h e ‘ t o u g h er- o n-cri m e’ a p pr o a c h ” s e e n as h a vi n g a si g nifi c a nt i m p a ct o n N C R M D ( H u nt et al., 2 0 1 9, p. 3 0 4). T h e “ T o u g h - o n-cri m e ” a g e n d a (r ef er e n c e d wit h r e g ar ds t o t h e sitti n g C o ns er v ati v e g o v er n m e nt’s h ars h st a n c e o n cri m e) is als o m e nti o n e d i n r es e ar c h o n Bill C - 5 4, als o k n o w n as t h e N ot Cri mi n all y R es p o nsi bl e R ef or m A ct ( H a a g et al., 2 0 2 1, p. 2). 15 T h e f e d er al g o v er n m e nt p ass e d t h e N ot Cri mi n all y R es p o nsi bl e R ef or m A ct , wit h t h e p arti al p ur p os e of t h e A ct t o i m pr o v e t h e ri g hts of vi cti m’s ( N ot Cri mi n all y R es p o nsi bl e R ef or m A ct , S. C. 2 0 1 4, c 6). Als o k n o w n as Bill C-1 4, t his l e gisl ati o n w o ul d “ e n h a n c e vi cti m i n v ol v e m e nt i n t h e dis p ositi o n pr o c ess ” of N C R M D ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 4 7). T h es e c h a n g es, it w as st at e d, c o ul d eli cit s u p p ort fr o m t h os e w h o m a y h a v e ot h er wis e b e e n criti c al of N C R M D ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). C h a n g es i n Bill C - 1 4 i n cl u d e d t h e i ntr o d u cti o n of a hi g h-ris k a c c us e d ( H R A) d esi g n ati o n, w hi c h li mit e d w h e n a R e vi e w B o ar d dis c h ar g e d a n N C R M D off e n d er, w hi c h i n t ur n li mit e d t h e off e n d er’s a bilit y t o a c c ess s u p p ort a n d tr e at m e nt wit hi n t h e c o m m u nit y ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5). T h e hi g h -ris k a c c us e d d esi g n ati o n is a dj u di c at e d b as e d o n crit eri a i n cl u di n g t h e n at ur e of t h e cri m e, d es cri b e d as: “t h e br ut al n at ur e of t h e a ct p er p et u at e d b y t h e a c c us e d p ers o n i n t h e all e g e d off e n c e ” ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5, p. 9 3). T w o a d diti o n al c h a n g es r e pr es e nt e d i n Bill C- 1 4 i n cl u d e d: “t h e alt er ati o n of t h e w or di n g of r e vi e w b o ar d dis p ositi o ns ”, a n d “ c h a n g es i n t h e i n v ol v e m e nt of vi cti ms i n t h e [ N C R M D] pr o c ess ” ( H u nt et al., 2 0 1 9). T his b ill w as p ass e d a n d c a m e i nt o eff e ct as Bill C - 5 4 i n J ul y, 2 0 1 4 ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5). T his bill r e pr es e nts t h e l ast si g nifi c a nt c h a n g e t o N C R M D l e gisl ati o n i n C a n a d a , a n d is t h e c urr e nt l e gisl ati o n w e s e e i n pl a c e t o d a y. G a ps i n t h e Hist o r y of N C R M D R ef o r m A p art fr o m t h e i ntr o d u cti o n of bills t o r ef or m N C R M D , t h e M’ N a g ht e n c as e of 1 8 4 3, Bill C- 3 0 ( 1 9 9 2) , Bill C- 1 0 ( 2 0 0 5) a n d Bill C - 1 4/ C-5 4 ( 2 0 1 4), ot h er att e m pts w er e pr o p os e d a n d c o nsi d er e d t o r ef or m t h e i ns a nit y d ef e n c e i n C a n a d a, b ut n e v er c o difi e d , e x pl ai ni n g t h e g a p i n i ns a nit y d ef e n c e l e gisl ati o n. A n a m e n d m e nt i n 1 9 6 9 all o w e d t h e Li e ut e n a nt G o v er n or t h e u nl e gisl at e d dis cr eti o n t o a p p oi nt a n a d vis or y b o ar d f or N G RI dis p ositi o n r e c o m m e n d ati o ns ( Gr a nt h a m, 2 0 1 4). Gr a nt h a m 16 ( 2 0 1 4, p. 3) st at e d, “ … alt h o u g h t h e n e e d f or r ef or m w as r e c o g ni z e d, c h a n g e w o ul d n ot b e r e alis e d u ntil t h e 1 9 0 0s”. Pil o n ( 2 0 0 2) r e p ort e d a pr o p os e d r ef or m t o t h e i ns a nit y d ef e n c e i n 1 9 7 5, w h er e t h e ol d s yst e m of m e nt all y ill off e n d ers b ei n g ‘h el d at t h e pl e as ur e of t h e Li e ut e n a nt G o v er n or ’ w as r e c o m m e n d e d t o e v ol v e t o a h e ari n g s yst e m t o d et er mi n e t h e dis p ositi o n; a pr o c ess t h at w o ul d b e s u bj e ct t o r e vi e w a n d assi g ni n g s o m e d et er mi n at es of l e n gt h t o t h e dis p ositi o n pr o c ess. T h is pr o p os e d r ef or m w as o utli n e d i n a r e p ort d e v el o p e d b y t h e L a w R ef or m C o m missi o n of C a n a d a ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). I n 1 9 8 2, t h e D e p art m e nt of J usti c e , as p art of a r e vi e w of cri mi n al l a w, i niti at e d t h e M e nt al Dis or d er Pr oj e ct ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). T his pr oj e ct o utli n e d fl a ws wit hi n t h e Cri mi n al C o d e m e nt al h e alt h pr o visi o ns a n d t h e p ossi b ilit y f or C h art er i nfri n g e m e nts ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). T h e M e nt al Dis or d er Pr oj e ct r e p ort w as r el e as e d i n 1 9 8 5, c o nt ai ni n g r e c o m m e n d ati o ns f or r ef or m t hr o u g h a dr aft bill, t h at c o nti n u e d t o b e d e b at e d t hr o u g h 1 9 8 8 , at w hi c h ti m e t h e a p p e al of R v S w ai n w as b ef or e t h e S C C ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). Gr a n t h a m ( 2 0 1 4) i d e ntifi e d calls f or c h a n g e t o N G RI w er e s e e n i n 1 9 5 6, 1 9 7 6 a n d 1 9 8 2, wit h tr u e c h a n g e s r e ali z e d i n 1 9 9 2. C ri mi n ol o gi c al T h e o ri es a n d N C R M D R es e ar c h o n cri mi n ol o gi c al t h e ori es as t h e y r el at e t o N C R M D pr o vi d e r e a d ers a bri ef o v er vi e w o n t h e ori es of cri m e as it r el at es t o cl assi c al v e rs us p ositi visti c t h e ori es of cri m e , t o h el p e x pl ai n s o ci et al vi e ws o n pr o gr a ms s u c h as N C R M D. T his o v er vi e w e nli g ht e n s t h e n e xt s e cti o n of t his r es e ar c h t h at dis c uss es h o w s o ci et y u n d erst a n ds j usti c e. 17 Cl assi c al T h e o ri es of C ri m e T h e cl assi c al cri mi n ol o gi c al t h e or y is a d et err e n c e m o d el a n d ass u m es off e n d ers h a v e fr e e will, a n d ar e d et err e d b y p u nis h m e nt ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 1 6). T h e p u nis h m e nt n e e ds t o b e: c ert ai n, s wift a n d pr o p orti o n at e t o t h e cri m e ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 1 6). Alt h o u g h t h er e ar e s e v er al v ari ati o ns of cl assi c al t h e ori es, t h e o v er ar c hi n g pr e mis e i n a cl assi c al cri mi n ol o gi c al t h e or y is a n e m p h asis t h at t h os e w h o c o m mit cri m es e v al u at e t h e c ost of c o m mitti n g t h e cri m e (d et er mi n a c y of p u nis h m e nt) a n d t h e b e n efit t h at will b e d eri v e d fr o m c o m mitti n g t h e cri m e, wit h t h eir a cti o ns b ei n g a r e pr es e nt ati o n of t h is c ost- b e n efit a n al ysis ( Ti b b etts & Pi q u er o, 2 0 2 3). Res e ar c h o n t h e eff e cti v e n ess of a d et err e n c e m o d el i n di c at es it is r e as o n a bl e y et i n c o n cl usi v e ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 1 6). T h e p u bli c v al u es a n d b eli e v es i n p u nis h m e nt a n d r etri b uti o n f or off e n d ers a n d cri m es ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). R es e ar c h st at es t h er e is c o m m o n alit y i n l e g al d efi niti o ns of cri m e , d es cri b e d as t h e vi ol ati o n of l a ws ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 1 6). It is als o st at e d t h at cri m e is a s o ci al c o nstr u ct, a p pl yi n g i nt er v e nti o n a n d c o ntr ol t o w ar ds b e h a vi o urs t h at a p arti c ul ar s o ci et y d e e ms cri mi n al ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 1 6). I n t his v ei n of cl assi c al vi e ws, i f cri m e is a s o ci al c o nstr u ct, t h e n s o t o o is t h e p u nis h m e nt r e q uir e d t o m a k e vi cti ms f e el t h at j usti c e h as b e e n s er v e d. I n c o ntr ast t o t his cl assi c al vi e w of cri m e, it w as st at e d, “ T h e i ns a nit y d ef e ns e is n ot i n k e e pi n g wit h p u bli cl y h el d v al u es of p u nis h m e nt, r etri b uti o n, a n d a n o v er all ‘ c ult ur e of p u nis h m e nt’ i n t o d a y’s s o ci et y ” ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 4 5). P ositi v ist T h e o ri es of C ri m e A p ositi vist t h e or y of cri m e l o o ks at s ci e ntifi c m e as ur e m e nt a n d e x pl a n ati o n of cri mi n alit y, wit h a vi e w t o w ar ds r e h a bilit ati o n o v er r etri b uti o n ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 1 6). Cri mi n alit y , a c c or di n g t o t h e p ositi v e s c h o ol of cri mi n ol o g y, is attri b ut e d t o m or e t h a n a n off e n d er’s fr e e will ( Ti b b etts & Pi q u er o, 2 0 2 3). Us e d s y n o n y m o usl y wit h t h e t er m d et er mi nis m, p ositi vis m as it 18 r el at es t o t h e ori es of cri m e, o p er at es u n d er t h e ass u m pti o n t h at p e o pl e ar e n ot off e n di n g b e c a us e of l o gi c a n d fr e e will, b ut r at h er b e c a us e of “ bi ol o gi c al, ps y c h ol o gi c al, a n d s o ci ol o gi c al v ari a bl es ” ( Ti b b etts & Pi q u er o, 2 0 2 3, p. 8 3). S u m m a r y of C ri mi n ol o gi c al T h e o ri es Alt h o u g h n eit h er cl assi c al or p ositi visti c vi e ws o n cri m e s er v e t o r e d u c e cri m e, “ p ositi vist i d e as c o nti n u e t o h a v e a n i nfl u e n c e o n t h e j u di ci al pr o c ess ” ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 1 6, p. 1 0 4). W hil e t h e cl assi c al t h e or y of cri mi n ol o g y s p e a ks t o fr e e-will, a n d t h e p ositi vist vi e w ali g ns wit h s ci e ntifi c m e as ur e m e nt, o n e m a y ass u m e t h e c o n c e pt of N C R M D a n d t h e a cti o ns r e q uir e d t o cl ai m N C R M D ar e v oi d of fr e e-will (t h e i nt e nti o n , or m e ns r e a, t o c o m mit t h e cri m e). T his w o ul d bri n g us t o s e e N C R M D as f alli n g m or e wit hi n t h e p ositi vist t h e or y, wit h a n e y e t o t h e s ci e n c e b e hi n d t h e cri m e. S o ci et y’s U n d e rst a n di n g of J usti c e T h e r es e ar c h of Gr ossi a n d Gr e e n ( 2 0 1 7) st at e t h at cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y is s ee n as a s o ci al c o nstr u ct. Wit h r es p e ct t o s o ci al c o nstr u ct t h er e is v ari ati o n d e p e n di n g o n t h e c o u ntr y st u di e d, as i d e as ar o u n d s o ci al a c c e pt a n c e a n d pr a cti c es diff er d u e t o c o nfli cti n g l e g al st a n d ar ds, a n d t h e pr e v al e n c e or l a c k of ps y c hi atri c e v al u ati o ns ( Gr ossi & Gr e e n, 2 0 1 7). T h er ef or e, d e m o gr a p hi c c o m p aris o ns ar e diffi c ult ( Gr ossi & Gr e e n, 2 0 1 7). Gr ossi a n d Gr e e n ( 2 0 1 7) dis c uss e d t h at i n C a n a d a, t h e U nit e d St at es, t h e U nit e d Ki n g d o m, a n d A ustr ali a, d et er mi n ati o ns of a d ef e n d a nt's cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y is m a d e wit h m e nt al ill n ess b ei n g c o nsi d er e d , h o w e v er off e n d ers i n S w e d e n ar e r es p o nsi bl e f or t h eir a cti o ns d es pit e a n y dis e as e, d ef e ct, or ill n ess of t h e mi n d ( Gr ossi & Gr e e n, 2 0 1 7). F or t h e p ur p os e of t his r es e ar c h, t h e vi e w of s o ci et y’s u n d erst a n di n g of j usti c e will f o c us g e o gr a p hi c all y i n C a n a d a . 19 P oliti cs a n d N C R M D T h er e h a v e b e e n s e v er al i nst a n c es w h er e p oliti c al i n v ol v e m e nt h as i nfl u e n c e d c as e s wit hi n t h e N C R M D str e a m. P oliti c al i nfl u e n c e is t h o u g ht t o b e e vi d e nt i n t h e c as e of Vi n c e nt Li, w h e n Li h a d pri vil e g es e x p a n d e d t o i n cl u d e es c ort e d o uti n gs o n t h e gr o u n ds of his m e di c al f a cilit y ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7 ). M a nit o b a J usti c e M i nist er, A n dr e w S w a n , s us p e n d e d t h e Re vi e w B o ar d's d e cisi o n t o all o w Li o uti n gs ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). It w as s ai d t h at J usti c e Mi nist er S w a n’s d e cisi o n w as p oliti c al p a n d eri n g a n d t his politi c al i nt erf er e n c e d e m o nstr at e d t h at iss u es r el at e d t o N C R M D dr a w n e g ati v e p u bli c r e a cti o n ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). W he n Li w as gr a nt e d a n a bs ol ut e dis c h ar g e, I nt eri m C o ns er v ati v e P art y L e a d er R o n a A m br os e is q u ot e d p u bli cl y criti ci zi n g t h e d e cisi o n, as ki n g Pri m e Mi nst er J usti n Tr u d e a u t o p ut t h e ri g hts of vi cti ms first ( R uss ell, 2 0 1 7). P oliti c al i n v ol v e m e nt is als o cit e d i n t h e c as e of M att h e w d e Gr o o d, w h e n i n 2 0 1 9, t h e R e vi e w B o ar d gr a nt e d a d diti o n al pri vil e g es of u ns u p er vis e d o uti n gs t o d e Gr o o d, a m o v e t h at w as a d m o nis h e d b y t h e n Al b ert a J usti c e Mi nist er, D o u g S c h w eit z er ( W a k efi el d, 2 0 2 1). T his p oliti c al i n v ol v e m e nt r es ult e d i n t h e r esi g n ati o n of t h e R e vi e w B o ar d c h air p ers o n, a n d t h e r e pl a c e m e nt of b o ar d m e m b ers wit h a p p oi nt e es s el e ct e d b y t h e sitti n g p oliti c al p art y, a m o v e s e e n b y t h e l e g al c o m m u nit y as p oliti ci zi n g t h e R e vi e w B o ar d pr o c ess ( W a k efi el d, 2 0 2 1). Mi nist er S c h w eit z er c all e d t h e r esi g n ati o n of t h e b o ar d c h air, Jill T a yl or, “r e gr ett a bl e ” a n d t h at h e m a k es “ n o a p ol o gi es f or st a n di n g u p f or t h e ri g hts of vi cti ms i n o ur cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m ” ( D or m er, 2 0 1 9, “ S c h w eit z er c alls r esi g n ati o n ‘r e gr ett a bl e’ ” s e cti o n ). Mi nist er S c h w eit z er s ai d T a yl or w as a p p oi nt e d b y t h e f or m er sitti n g g o v er n m e nt ( D or m er, 2 0 1 9). Mi nist er S c h w eit z er is q u ot e d, “I b eli e v e t his [r esi g n ati o n] pr es e nts a n o p p ort u nit y f or a r es et w h er e b y t h e R e vi e w 20 B o ar d c a n p ut i n pl a c e pr ot o c ols t h at e ns ur e t h e m a xi m u m p ossi bl e r ol e f or t h e f a mili es a n d l o v e d o n es of vi cti ms of cri m e t o p arti ci p at e i n t h e h e ari n g pr o c ess ” (D or m er, 2 0 1 9, “ S c h w eit z er c alls r esi g n ati o n ‘r e gr ett a bl e’ ” s e cti o n ). R es e ar c h l o o k e d at t h e vi cti ms’ f a mili es b ei n g i nt e gr at e d i nt o t h e N C R M D R e vi e w B o ar d pr o c ess . T h e s o ci al m e di a p ost o n T witt er i n 2 0 1 9 b y Al b ert a Mi nist er of J usti c e, D o u g S c h w eit z er, i n di c at e d t h at vi cti m i n v ol v e m e nt is a pri orit y ( Kr u g el, 2 0 1 9). T h e T w e et r e a ds: “I’ v e h e ar d fr o m m a n y Al b ert a ns w h o ar e fr ustr at e d a n d dist ur b e d b y t his d e cisi o n [t o e xt e n d pri vil e g es t o d e Gr o o d wit h his d o ct or’s a p pr o v al]. I’ll b e f or m all y r e q u esti n g t h at Al b ert a’s r e vi e w b o ar d e ns ur e a m a xi m u m p ossi bl e r ol e f or vi cti ms t o b e p art of t h e h e ari n g pr o c ess a n d a d v o c ati n g t h at Ott a w a c o n d u ct a r e vi e w of st a n d ar ds of r el e as e ” ( Kr u g el, 2 0 1 9, p ar a. 2 ). F or m er Pri m e Mi nst er, St e p h e n H ar p er, q u ot e d t hr o u g h T witt er s ai d “ Br ut al c as es li k e All a n S c h o e n b or n & Vi n c e Li u n d er mi n e c o nfi d e n c e i n o ur j usti c e s yst e m. O ur t o u g h n e w l a w w o ul d c h a n g e t h at ”, w h e n r ef erri n g t o Bill C- 1 4 a n d N C R M D r ef or m ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 4 6). B e n efits a n d Li mit ati o ns of N C R M D T his s e cti o n of r es e ar c h l o o k e d at t h e p er c ei v e d b e n efits a n d li mit ati o ns of t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e f o u n d i n lit er at ur e. B e n efits of N C R M D A b e n efit of N C R M D is t h at off e n d ers e x p eri e n ci n g m e nt al ill n ess ar e pr o vi d e d wit h tr e at m e nt, r at h er t h a n i n c ar c er at e d, b ei n g di v ert e d t o a m e di c al str e a m , w hi c h is s e e n as tr e ati n g off e n d ers a p pr o pri at el y, a n d pr ot e cti n g t h e p u bli c ( M c L a c hli n, 2 0 1 0). R eit er ati n g t h e w or ds of M c L a c hli n, it w as als o st at e d t h at it is s af er f or s o ci et y, a n d f or m e nt all y ill off e n d ers, t o h a v e a pr o gr a m i n pl a c e t h at d o es n ot j ust i n c ar c er at e t h os e wit h a m e nt al dis or d er ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5). 21 T h er e is li mit e d r es e ar c h f o u n d o n t h e b e n efits of N C R M D. Li mit ati o ns of N C R M D R es e ar c h o n t h e li mit ati o ns of N C R M D is m or e e x p a nsi v e , wit h m ost of t h e lit er at ur e r e vi e w e d f or t his t h esis citi n g criti cis m s of N C R M D. L i mit ati o ns of N C R M D w er e s e e n i n th e r es e ar c h of G. Gr e g Br o ds k y ( 2 0 1 7). Br o ds k y ( 2 0 1 7) pr o vi d e d dis c ussi o n o n c a uti o n t o c o nsi d er w h e n a n off e n d er cl ai m s N C R M D . Br o ds k y’s arti cl e dis c uss e d t h e eff e ct t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e h as o n a n off e n d er’s li b ert y ( or d e pri v ati o n of li b ert y), a n d dis pr o p orti o n at e dis p ositi o ns i n N C R M D c as es f or m or e s eri o us off e n c e s ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). Wit h r es p e ct t o i n di ct a bl e off e n c es, off e n d ers e x p eri e n ci n g m e nt al ill n ess m a y b e a p pr e h e nsi v e a b o ut cl ai mi n g N C R M D , wit h t h e p ossi bilit y of t h e off e n d er b ei n g d e e m e d hi g hris k a c c us e d ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). A n N C R M D off e n d er d e e m e d hi g h -ris k a c c us e d b y a R e vi e w B o ar d will e x p eri e n c e l o n g er dis p ositi o ns, a n d l ess a bilit y t o w or k t o w ar ds pri vil e g es t h at w o ul d pr o m ot e a m or e s u c c essf ul r ei nt e gr ati o n i nt o s o ci et y ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). It w as st at e d, “ F or m ost off e ns es, i n di vi d u als f o u n d N C R M D t e n d t o b e d et ai n e d l o n g er u n d er R e vi e w B o ar ds t h a n h a d t h e y b e e n f o u n d g uilt y a n d s e nt e n c e d t o pris o n ” ( M e nt al H e alt h C o m missi o n of C a n a d a, 2 0 1 3, “ O ut c o m es U n d er R e vi e w B o ar ds ” s e cti o n ). If t h e d ef e n c e of N C R M D is a v oi d e d, m or e off e n d ers will s er v e t h eir s e nt e n c e i n a c orr e cti o n al r etri b uti v e s yst e m r at h er t h a n a m e di c al r e ha bilit ati v e s yst e m ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7). L a cr oi x et al . ( 2 0 1 7) als o s u g g est e d t h at N C R M D off e n d ers m a y b e r el u ct a nt t o us e N C R M D as a d ef e n c e b e c a us e off e n d ers r u n t h e ris k of b ei n g l a b ell e d a hi g h- ris k a c c us e d a n d t h er ef or e s er vi n g m or e ti m e t h a n t hr o u g h a dis p ositi o n i n t h e cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m. S h o ul d a n a c c us e d wit h m e nt al h e alt h c o n c er ns s er v e t h eir dis p ositi o n wit hi n t h e cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m r at h er t h a n t h e m e di c al str e a m, t h e y w o ul d li k el y s er v e t h eir ti m e a n d b e r el e as e d wit h o ut 22 r e c ei vi n g tr e at m e nt f or t h eir m e nt al h e alt h iss u es ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). R es e ar c h als o st at ed t h at alt h o u g h a n off e n d er m a y m e et t h e t hr es h ol d of N C R M D crit eri a, t h e y m a y b e r el u ct a nt t o us e t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e b e c a us e “ b ei n g f o u n d g uilt y a n d b ei n g s u bj e ct t o p u nis h m e nt is oft e n vi e w e d as a m or e a d v a nt a g e o us o pti o n t h a n s u b mitti n g t o p ossi bl y l e n gt h y h os pit al d et e nti o n ” ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 8, p. 1 1). St atisti cs C a n a d a d at a fr o m 2 0 1 2 r e p orts t h at dis p ositi o ns f or t h os e s er vi n g t er ms u n d er N C R M D ar e u p t o 1 7 % l o n g er t h a n dis p ositi o ns t h at ar e wit hi n t h e cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m ( Mil a di n o vi c & L u k ass e n, 2 0 1 4). T h e st atisti cs r e pr es e nt e d i n Fi g ur e 2 ( Mil a di n o vi c a n d L u k ass e n , 2 0 1 4, “ N C R M D c as es t o o k l o n g er t o c o m pl et e ” s e cti o n ) i n di c at e t h e el a ps e d ti m e f or N C R M D c as es c o m p ar e d t o n o n -N C R M D c as es : Fi g u r e 2. Distri b uti o n of n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er c as es. Fr o m “ V er di cts of n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er i n a d ult cri mi n al c o urts ” b y Z. Mil a di n o vi c a n d J. L u k ass e n ( 2 0 1 4, S e pt e m b er 1 8 , “ N C R M D c as es t o o k l o n g er t o 23 c o m pl et e ” s e cti o n ). htt ps:// w w w 1 5 0.st at c a n. g c. c a/ n 1/ p u b/ 8 5- 0 0 2- x/ 2 0 1 4 0 0 1/ arti cl e/ 1 4 0 8 5e n g. ht m S e nti m e nts of u n c ert ai nt y i n dis p ositi o n l e n gt hs ar e e c h o e d i n r es e ar c h dis c ussi n g e x p a n di n g t h e a p pli c ati o n of N C R M D fr o m its c urr e nt n arr o w t hr es h ol d, wit h s u c h e x p a nsi o n n ot b ei n g s e e n as d esir a bl e i n t h e e y es of t h os e wit h m e nt al ill n ess ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 9). B ar o n ( 2 0 1 9) a d ds t h at “ E v e n as n arr o w as t his d ef e n c e is t o d a y, t h e N C M R D d ef e n c e is oft e n n ot br o u g ht f or w ar d b e c aus e of t h e s eri o us i m pli c ati o ns of t his d ef e n c e, b ot h i n t er ms of sti g m a a n d ris k of l o n g-t er m ps y c hi atri c d et e nti o n ” ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 9, p. 1 0). Wit h t h e f e ar of b ei n g d e e m e d a hi g h-ris k a c c us e d i n t h e N C R M D str e a m a n d t h us gr e at er u n c ert ai nt y of a r el e as e d at e , off e n d ers e x p eri e n ci n g m e nt al ill n ess m a y a v oi d cl ai mi n g N C R M D, w hi c h will s e e off e n d ers wit h m e nt al ill n ess “ e m er g e fr o m pris o n wit h n o tr e at m e nt a n d n o s u p er visi o n ” ( Br o ds k y, 2 0 1 7, p. 1 1 2). C as e St u di es of N C R M D T his r es e ar c h e x pl or e d t hr e e si g nifi c a nt C a n a di a n c as es w h er e N C R M D w as t h e s u c c essf ul d ef e n c e. C as e st u di es i n t his r es e ar c h d et ail t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e c as es of M att h e w d e Gr o o d, Vi n c e nt Li ( Li’s n a m e n o w c h a n g e d t o Will L e e B a k er), a n d All a n S c h o e n b or n . T h es e t hr e e N C R M D c as es r e pr es e nt a m o d est s a m pl e si z e b as e d o n t h e crit eri a: all b ei n g C a n a di a n c as es of N C R M D, a n d e a c h c as e r e pr es e nti n g a n i n di ct a bl e off e n c e t h at w as w ell p u bli ci z e d, s o as t o h a v e a c c ess t o vi cti m st at e m e nts a v ail a bl e t hr o u g h t h e m e di a. T his r es e ar c h pr o vi d es a n i ntr o d u ct or y o v er vi e w of e a c h c as e, al o n g wit h s u p p orti n g st at e m e nts t hr o u g h m e di a r e p orts, pri m aril y is ol ati n g vi cti m a n d off e n d er q u ot es. N C R M D D ef e n c e , C as e 1. M att h e w d e G r o o d I n A pril 2 0 1 4, i n t h e pr o vi n c e of Al b ert a, u ni v ersit y st u d e nt M att h e w d e Gr o o d, w hil e att e n di n g a h o us e p art y, kill e d fi v e p e o pl e ( G o oss e ns et. al ., 2 0 2 1). H a vi n g n o pri or hist or y wit h 24 p oli c e, d e Gr o o d, a u ni v ersit y u n d er gr a d u at e a n d U ni v ersit y of C al g ar y pr e -l a w st u d e nt, st a b b e d fi v e vi cti ms t o d e at h wit h a k nif e (M att h e w d e Gr o o d , 2 0 1 4). d e Gr o o d w e nt t o tri al, a n d w as f o u n d N C R M D i n M a y 2 0 1 6 ( G o oss e ns et al. , 2 0 2 1). T h e vi cti ms i n cl u d e d: Z a c k ari a h R at h w ell, K aiti P err as, L a wr e n c e H o n g, J or d a n S e g ur a a n d J os h u a H u nt er ( M arti n, 2 0 1 7). P att y S e g ur a , f a mil y m e m b er of vi cti m J or d a n S e g ur a, w as q u ot e d d uri n g t h e tri al pr o c ess , “ T h e j usti c e s yst e m h as m a d e m e f e el c o m pl et el y i n visi bl e ”, a n d g o es o n t o s a y “Is a n y o n e r e all y list e ni n g t o m e w h e n I s a y h o w br o k e n - h e art e d I a m. ” ( M arti n, 2 0 1 7, p ar a. 2 2). I n 2 0 1 8, Gr e g g P err as (f at h er of vi cti m K aiti P err as) is q u ot e d c alli n g t h e N C R M D pr o c ess a “ v er y fl a w e d s yst e m ”, a n d “ N o o n e i n t h e pr o c ess a cts f or t h e vi cti ms a n d w e as vi cti ms w er e o nl y m e nti o n e d o n c e d uri n g t h e h e ari n g ” ( M arti n, 2 0 1 8, p ar as. 1 3- 1 4 ). It w as d uri n g t his N C R M D R e vi e w B o ar d h e ari n g i n 2 0 1 8 t h at t h e Re vi e w B o ar d e x pr ess e d c o n c er n t h at t h e h e a d of d e Gr o o d’s tr e at m e nt t e a m w as t a ki n g t h e c o n c er ns of t h e vi cti m’s f a mili es i nt o c o nsi d er ati o n w h e n m a ki n g his tr e at m e nt r e c o m m e n d ati o ns f or d e Gr o o d ( M arti n, 2 0 1 8). T h e c o nsi d er ati o n of t h e vi cti m’s f a mili es w as s e e n as a c o nfli ct of i nt er est ( M arti n, 2 0 1 8). P err as’ f at h er st at ed d uri n g a n ot h er N C R M D R e vi e w B o ar d h e ari n g, “ T his r e vi e w b o ar d h as h e ar d i n n u m er a bl e h e artf elt a c c o u nts of all t h e d a m a g e a n d s orr o w, of fi v e w o n d erf ul p e o pl e w h o w er e kill e d. As I s e e it, t h es e d es cri pti o ns h a v e f all e n o n d e af e ars ” ( T h e C a n a di a n Pr ess, 2 0 2 0, p ar a. 1 2). I n dis c ussi n g d e Gr o o d’s ti m e s p e nt i n tr e at m e nt, P err as is als o q u ot e d , “ W e k n o w e v er y y e ar t h e pri vil e g es j ust k e e p i n cr e asi n g t o t h e p oi nt w h er e h e’s g oi n g t o b e l et o ut, w hi c h d o es n’t m a k e a n y s e ns e at t his st a g e gi v e n it’s o nl y b e e n f o ur y e ars si n c e h e w as f o u n d N C R ”, f oll o w e d b y t h e st at e m e nt, “ T h e m ai n m ess a g e I w a nt t h e b o ar d t o h e ar is w h y ar e y o u i n s u c h a h urr y t o gr a nt hi m pri vil e g es i n a n u ns u p er vis e d sit u ati o n ” ( Si d h u, 2 0 2 0, p ar as. 3- 4). 25 T h e m ot h er of vi cti m Z a c h ari a h R at h w ell, R o n d a- L e e R at h w ell, is q u ot e d , “I w a nt t h e m [t h e R e vi e w B o ar d] t o l o o k at t h e r e as o n w h y w e ar e t h er e, n ot j ust h o w w ell h e’s [ M att h e w d e Gr o o d is] d oi n g a n d h o w w ell h e’s pr o gr ess e d ” ( E d m o nt o n J o ur n al, 2 0 1 9, 1: 2 0). R at h w ell als o d es cri b e d t h e diffi c ult y of r eli vi n g t h e d e at hs of t h eir c hil dr e n t hr o u g h t h e R e vi e w B o ar d h e ari n gs, st ati n g “it is s o p ai nf ul t o h a v e t o g o b a c k t o t h at s a m e pl a c e, a n d t h e n t o h a v e p e o pl e l o o k at y o u wit h n o c o m p assi o n a n d n o c ari n g, a n d t ell y o u ‘ w e’r e j ust s o h a p p y t h e m a n t h at m ur d er e d y o ur c hil dr e n is d oi n g s o w ell’ ” ( E d m o nt o n J o ur n al, 2 0 1 9, 1: 5 4). T h is d e Gr o o d c as e st u d y c o n cl u d es wit h a st at e m e nt fr o m M att h e w d e Gr o o d, a n d t h e p ar e nts of M att h e w d e Gr o o d. M att h e w d e Gr o o d, at his R e vi e w B o ar d h e ari n g i n 2 0 2 1, st at ed, “I a c c e pt w h at I h a v e d o n e a n d I’ m tr ul y s orr y. I j ust h o p e o n e d a y I will b e s e e n as a p ers o n w h o is a bl e t o e ar n his w a y b a c k i nt o s o ci et y. T h e w ei g ht of t his tr a g e d y b e ars h e a vil y o n m y s h o ul d ers a n d h as n ot li g ht e n e d o v er ti m e. I c arr y t h e s h a m e a n d g uilt wit h m e 2 4- 7 a n d will f or e v er. I w a nt t o m a k e a m e n ds i n a n y w ay I c a n. I’ m c o m mitt e d t o m a n a gi n g m y ill n ess ” ( Gl o b al N e ws, 2 0 2 1, p ar as. 1 6 - 1 7). d e Gr o o d’s p ar e nts ar e als o q u ot e d at t h e Re vi e w B o ar d h e ari n g s a yi n g, “ N ot hi n g pr e p ar e d us f or t h e i n cr e asi n g cr us a d e of s e e ki n g a lif eti m e p u nis h m e nt f or M att h e w. W e f e el th e n e e d t o r e mi n d t h os e w h o s e e m t o h a v e f or g ott e n t h at M att h e w h as alr e a d y b e e n t hr o u g h t h e tri al a n d f o u n d t o b e n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e. Y et s o m e p e o pl e f e el t h e r e vi e w b o ar d h e ari n gs e v er y y e ar s h o ul d b e tr e at e d li k e a q u est f or j usti c e ” (Gl o b al N e ws, 2 0 2 1, p ar as. 1 9- 2 0 ). N C R M D D ef e n c e , C as e 2. Vi n c e nt W ei g u a n g Li (n a m e s u bs e q u e ntl y c h a n g e d t o Will L e e B a k e r , b ut r ef e r r e d t o as Li i n t his t h esis) I n 2 0 0 8, Vi n c e nt Li d e c a pit at e d a n d c a n ni b ali z e d f ell o w p ass e n g er, Ti m M c L e a n , o n a Gr e y h o u n d b us i n M a nit o b a ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). Li w as r e p ort e d t o h a v e s uff er e d fr o m 26 u ntr e at e d s c hi z o p hr e ni a ( P a uls, 2 0 1 5). I n 2 0 0 9 Li w as f o u n d N C R M D ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7; P a uls, 2 0 1 5 ). Aft er s e v e n y e ars of tr e at m e nt i n a m e nt al h e alt h f a cilit y, Li w as gr a nt e d a d diti o n al fr e e d o ms i n 2 0 1 5, i n cl u di n g b ei n g m o v e d t o a gr o u p h o m e u n d er s e v er al c o n diti o ns ( P a uls, 2 0 1 5). T o d a y, Li is o ut of tr e at m e nt a n d c ust o d y, h a vi n g b e e n gr a nt e d a n a bs ol ut e dis c h ar g e i n 2 0 1 7 ( R uss ell, 2 0 1 7). T h e m ot h er of Ti m M c L e a n, C ar ol d e D ell e y, a s elf- a p p oi nt e d a d v o c at e f or N C R M D a w ar e n ess a n d r ef or m ( o p e n p arli a m e nt. c a, 2 0 1 3), is q u ot e d as s a yi n g: “I h a v e n o c o m m e nt t o d a y, I h a v e n o w or ds ” w h e n r ef erri n g t o Li b ei n g gr a nt e d a n a bs ol ut e dis c h ar g e ( R uss ell, 2 0 1 7, 0: 4 0). “I h o p e t h at l e v el h e a ds pr e v ail a n d t h at t h e p u bli c is k e pt s af e i n t h e f ut ur e a n d I t hi n k t h at’s b est d o n e b y k e e pi n g Li at l e ast u n d er c o n diti o ns ” ( R uss ell, 2 0 1 7, 1: 1 8). “It’s s yst e mi c f ail ur es at e v er y l e v el t h at l e d t o t h e d e at h of m y s o n a n d I d o n’t s e e a n y si g nifi c a nt c h a n g es t o pr e v e nt t h at h a p p e ni n g a g ai n. T h e m ai n pr o bl e m h er e is t h at i n C a n a d a t h er e is n o l e g al m e c h a nis m t h at w o ul d r e q uir e Vi n c e Li, e v e n n o w, t o tr e at his ill n ess ” ( R o y Gr e e n, 2 0 1 5, 2: 5 0). d e D ell e y c o nti n u e d, “ H e is n ot l e g all y r e q uir e d t o t a k e t h at m e di c ati o n, it is still his c h oi c e. I d o n’t t hi n k t h at t h at c h oi c e s h o ul d b e his t o m a k e a n y m or e ” ( R o y Gr e e n, 2 0 1 5, 3: 2 0). “I d o n’t t hi n k t h at t h e s yst e m, t h at t h e c o m m u nit y is a n y m or e pr e p ar e d t o d e al wit h a n i n di vi d u al li k e Vi n c e Li o n t h e o utsi d e t h a n t h e y w er e si x a n d a h alf y e ars a g o ” ( R o y Gr e e n, 2 0 1 5, 3: 3 4). W h e n as k e d w h o is r es p o nsi bl e, d e D ell e y st at e d “ N o b o d y. T h at’s w h at I’ v e l e ar n e d o v er all of t his o v er t h e p ast si x a n d a h alf y e ars is t h at a bs ol ut el y n o b o d y is r es p o nsi bl e. W e k n o w t h at Vi n c e Li is n ot r es p o nsi bl e. T h e Re vi e w B o ar d will n e v er b e h el d a c c o u nt a bl e s h o ul d 27 a n yt hi n g g o wr o n g. T h e tr e ati n g ps y c hi atrist, n o n e of t h e m ar e h el d r es p o nsi bl e. T h er e’s n o a c c o u nt a bilit y. ” ( R o y Gr e e n, 2 0 1 5, 4: 1 2). W h e n s p e a ki n g a b o ut vi cti m a d v o c a c y , d e D ell e y st at e d s h e s p e a ks f or t h e vi cti ms i n h er p u bli c st at e m e nt a b o ut f aili n gs of t h e N C R M D s yst e m, s a yi n g si g nifi c a nt s u p p ort is pr o vi d e d t o t h e off e n d ers, a n d t h at s ur vi v ors, f a mil y m e m b ers a n d first r es p o n d ers ar e all vi cti ms of t h e off e n d er ( o p e n p arli a m e nt. c a, 2 0 1 3). C hris S u m m er vill e, C E O of t h e S c hi z o p hr e ni a S o ci et y of C a n a d a i nt er vi e w e d Vi n c e Li i n 2 0 1 2, f o ur y e ars aft er Li’s off e n c e. S u m m er vill e’s r e p ort st at e d, “I h a v e d e ci d e d t h at Mr. Li’s st or y n e e ds t o b e t ol d, t o a d d a h u m a n t o u c h t o a h orri bl e tr a g e d y. W h at w e h a v e h er e ar e t w o vi cti ms a n d t w o f a mili es w h o ar e vi cti ms of u ntr e at e d, u n c o ntr oll e d ps y c h osis ” ( P a uls, 2 0 1 5, “I nt er vi e w wit h Vi n c e Li ” s e cti o n ). S u m m er vill e w a nt e d t o p u bli ci z e his i nt er vi e w wit h Li t o s h o w a n ot h er si d e of N C R M D ( N ati o n al P ost, 2 0 1 2). I n t h e i nt er vi e w, Li d es cri b es a p pr e ci ati o n f or t h e h e alt h c ar e h e is pr o vi d e d, a n d st at es t h at h e s h o ul d b e u n d er a tr e at m e nt or d er ( N ati o n al P ost, 2 0 1 2). I n r ef er e n ci n g Li’s c as e, Ass o ci at e D e a n of R es e ar c h a n d G r a d u at e St u di es at t h e U ni v ersit y of M a nit o b a’s l a w f a c ult y, D e br a P ar k es, dis c uss e d c o n c er ns i n n otif yi n g t h e p u bli c w h e n a n N C R M D off e n d er is r el e as e d i nt o t h e c o m m u nit y ( P a uls, 2 0 1 5). P ar k es st at e d p u bli c n otifi c ati o n c o ul d l e a d t o vi gil a ntis m a g ai nst t h e off e n d er, st e m mi n g fr o m p u bli c f e ar si mil ar t o w h e n a s e x off e n d er is r el e as e d i nt o t h e c o m m u nit y , wit h N C R M D a n d s e x u al off e n c es b ei n g v er y diff er e nt cir c u mst a n c es ( P a uls, 2 0 1 5). N C R M D D ef e n c e , C as e 3. All a n S c h o e n b o r n All a n S c h o e n b or n kill e d his t hr e e y o u n g c hil dr e n ( a g es 5, 8 a n d 1 0) i n M er ritt, Britis h C ol u m bi a i n A pril 2 0 0 8 ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7; L ars o n, 2 0 2 2). S c h o e n b or n kill e d his c hil dr e n 28 w hil e e x p eri e n ci n g p ar a n oi d d el usi o ns i n a ps y c h oti c st at e, b eli e vi n g t h at his c hil dr e n, fr o m a br o k e n m arri a g e, w er e b ei n g e x p os e d t o dr u gs a n d s e x u al vi ol e n c e ( R v S c h o e n b or n , 2 0 1 0 B C S C 2 2 0). S c h o e n b or n w as f o u n d t o h a v e c o m mitt e d first d e gr e e m ur d er i n t h e d e at hs of his t hr e e c hil dr e n a n d d e e m e d N C R M D b y t h e S u pr e m e C o urt of Br itis h C ol u m bi a (R v S c h o e n b or n , 2 0 1 0 B C S C 2 2 0). S c h o e n b or n r e m ai ns i n c ust o d y t o d a y, wit h r e c e nt dis c ussi o n of e xt e n di n g pri vil e g es s u c h as u n es c ort e d l e a v e ( L ars e n, 2 0 2 2). T h e n o w d e c e as e d D ar ci e Cl ar k e, f or m er wif e of S c h o e n b or n a n d m ot h er of t h e c hil dr e n, w h e n r ef erri n g t o S c h o e n b or n’s p ot e nti al f or r el e as e, w as q u ot e d “ H e c o ul d b e i n o ur c o m m u nit y at a n y ti m e wit h o ut t h e p u bli c’s k n o wl e d g e b e c a us e t h e r e vi e w b o ar d d o es n ot h a v e t h e p u bli c’s s af et y as t h eir p ar a m o u nt c o n c er n ” ( M o o n e y, 2 0 1 9, p ar a. 7 ). O n h er n o w d ef u n ct w e bsit e , Cl ar k e h a d st at e d: “ All a n S c h o e n b or n is a m a n wit h a lif el o n g cri mi n al hist or y w hi c h i n cl u d es vi ol e n c e. T his vi ol e n c e c o nti n u es t o t his d a y i nsi d e t h e C ol o n y F ar m Ps y c hi atri c h os pit al w h er e h e h as li v e d f or t h e l ast s e v e n y e ars si n c e b ei n g f o u n d n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e ( N C R) f or t h e m ur d ers of m y c hil dr e n ” ( Ti el e m a n, 2 0 1 7, p ar a. 2 0). Cl ar k e’s q u ot e c o nti n u e d, “ T o d a y’s r uli n g h as n ot o nl y f ail e d m y f a mil y i n cl u di n g m y c hil dr e n, K aitl y n n e, M a x a n d C or d o n, b ut t h e j usti c e s yst e m h as f ail e d ot h ers d e ali n g wit h si mil ar N C R h e ari n gs. D uri n g t his h e ari n g w e h e ar d fr o m t h e d o ct ors w h o tr e at All e n t h at h e is d a n g er o us. D uri n g t his h e ari n g w e h e ar d fr o m f or m er d o ct ors a n d h os pit al st aff t h at t his tri pl e c hil d kill er c o n ti n u es t o b e a t hr e at t o ot h ers. B ut n o w, w e h a v e h e ar d fr o m a j u d g e t h at All a n is N O T t o b e d esi g n at e d a ris k t o p u bli c s af et y ? S h a m ef ul. ” ( Ti el e m a n, 2 0 1 7, p ar as. 2 1- 2 3). All a n S c h o e n b or n, i nt er vi e w e d i n 2 0 2 2 d uri n g his a n n u al R e vi e w B o ar d h e ari n g i n Britis h C ol u m bi a, st at e d “I’ m j ust a p u p p et o n a sti c k ri g ht n o w. I’ v e l ost e v er yt hi n g a n d I’ m j ust tr yi n g t o b e t h e w a y p e o pl e w a nt m e t o b e ” (L ars e n, 2 0 2 2, p ar a. 7). W h e n s p e a ki n g a b o ut h o w h e 29 will r es p o n d if r e c o g ni z e d i n p u bli c if gr a nt e d pri vil e g es or r el e as e, S c h o e n b or n r e pli e d, “ W h e n t h at ti m e c o m es t h at I’ m f o u n d o ut, I will w al k a w a y fr o m t h e j o b, w al k a w a y fr o m t h e a p art m e nt a n d c o m e b a c k t o h os pit al. I d o n’t t hi n k I c a n li v e wit h t h e o v er w h el mi n g f e eli n g t h at c o m es wit h t h at ” ( L ars e n, 2 0 2 2, p ar a. 1 6). O v e r all P u bli c P e r c e pti o ns T his s e cti o n e x pl or es o pi ni o ns of N C R M D i n C a n a d a, i n cl u di n g vi e ws c o m m u ni c at e d t hr o u g h e x pr essi o ns i n t h e m e di a, a n d t h e r ol e t h e m e di a pl a ys i n h o w t h e p u bli c r e c ei v es i nf or m ati o n. Lit er at ur e r e vi e w f or t his r es e ar c h als o e x pl or e d sti g m a s urr o u n di n g N C R M D, t o b ett er u n d erst a n di n g t h e s o ci al a c c e pt a n c e f or t his cri mi n al d esi g n ati o n. R es e ar c h f o u n d si g nifi c a nt i nf or m ati o n t h at s u g g este d N C R M D a n d m e nt al ill n ess ar e n ot vi e w e d f a v or a bl y b y t h e p u bli c ( H a a g et al., 2 0 2 1 ; L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7 ; Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7). Q u oti n g t h e r es e ar c h of H a ns ( 19 8 6) a n d S k e e m et al. ( 2 0 0 4), it w as st at e d “ R es e ar c h o n p u bli c c o n c e pti o ns of t h e i ns a nit y d ef e n c e h as c o nsist e ntl y s h o w n t h at it is p er c ei v e d as a l o o p h ol e t h at all o ws g uilt y d ef e n d a nts t o g o fr e e ” ( as cit e d i n Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 3 1 4). Y a m a m ot o et al. ( 2 0 1 7) g o o n t o st at e, “t h e l e g al c o n c e pt of i ns a nit y h as a hist or y of mistr ust a n d h as e v e n b e e n m et wit h o ut cr y t o a b olis h t h e d ef e n c e ” ( p. 3 1 3 ). It is als o st at e d b ot h t h e p u bli c a n d t h e m e di a b eli e v e t h at p u bli c s af et y r e m ai ns at ris k a n d d o n ot a p pr e ci at e t h e n at ur e of N C R M D ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). Th e i ns a nit y d ef e n c e is “s e e n as a l e g al e x c us e f or off e n d ers w h os e cri mi n al b e h a vi o ur is pr es u m e d t o b e d u e t o a s eri o us m e nt al ill n ess ” ( Gr ossi & Gr e e n, 2 0 1 7, p. 3). C a n a di a n m e di a h as i m pr o v e d i n t h eir r e p orti n g o n m e nt al ill n ess w hi c h w as s e e n t o r e d u c e sti g m a, h o w e v er a n e x c e pti o n t o t h at fi n di n g is t h at N C R M D c o nti n u es t o b e “ wi d el y mis u n d erst o o d b y t h e p u bli c ” ( W hitl e y et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 6 9 8). 30 C o m m o n b eli efs a n d mis c o n c e pti o ns h el d r e g ar di n g N C R M D i n cl u d e: t h e d ef e n c e is us e d t o o fr e q u e ntl y, off e n d ers cl ai m m e nt al ill n ess t o a v oi d p u nis h m e nt, N C R M D off e n d ers s er v e l ess ti m e i n d et e nti o n t h a n t h e y w o ul d i n pris o n, N C R M D off e n d ers ar e r el e as e d s o o n er i nt o t h e c o m m u nit y t h a n t h os e n ot d e e m e d N C R M D w h os e dis p ositi o ns ar e wit hi n t h e cri mi n al j usti c e str e a m, hi g h r e ci di vis m a m o n gst t h os e w h o cl ai m N C R M D , a n d N C R M D off e n d ers ar e i n v ol v e d i n m or e vi ol e nt cri m es ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5). F urt h er l it er at ur e r e vi e w f o u n d t h er e ar e a d diti o n al mis c o n c e pti o ns wit hi n s o ci et y r e g ar di n g N C R M D, cit e d fr o m H a ns ( 1 9 8 6), wit h b eli efs t h at t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e p uts p u bli c s af et y at ris k, t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e is o v er us e d, b eli efs t h at t h os e cl ai mi n g N C R M D ar e “ us u all y f a ki n g t h eir c o n diti o n ”, a n d t h e b eli ef t h at o n c e i n m e di c al c ust o d y off e n d ers ar e r el e as e d t o o s o o n (as cit e d i n L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 4 5). Lit er at ur e s h o w e d t h er e is l o w r e g ar d f or, a n d sti g m ati z ati o n of p e o pl e w h o cl ai m N C R M D, a n d t h os e s uff eri n g fr o m m e nt al ill n ess i n g e n er al ( G o oss e ns et al. , 2 0 2 1). Off e n d ers w h o c o m mit cri m e b as e d o n t h eir m e nt al ill n ess ar e h os pit alis e d a n d tr e at e d , w it h t h e r e p ort e d mis c o n c e pti o n t h at h os pit ali z ati o n is s e e n as a m e as ur e of s e c urit y, r at h er t h a n p u nis h m e nt ( B al & K o e nr a a d dt , 2 0 0 0, as cit e d i n Gr ossi & Gr e e n , 2 0 1 7). O n c e off e n d ers ar e i n tr e at m e nt, res e ar c h s h o w e d t h at mis c o n c e pti o ns e xist r e g ar di n g t h e r el e as e of N C R M D off e n d ers fr o m t h es e f a ciliti es, a n d p u bli c c o n c er n t h at off e n d ers ar e r el e as e d fr o m t h eir dis p ositi o n wit h o ut c o n diti o ns ( Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7). N e g ati v e p er c e pti o ns t o w ar ds N C R M D a n d m e nt al h e alt h h el d b y j ur ors is pr o p os e d “ as a b arri er t o e ns uri n g t h at d ef e n d a nts r e c ei v e f air tri als w h e n usi n g t h e i ns a nit y d ef e n c e i n t h e U nit e d St at es a n d C a n a d a ” (Gr ossi & Gr e e n, 2 0 1 7, p. 5). Gr ossi a n d Gr e e n ( 2 0 1 7) r e p ort t h at 31 alt h o u g h t h e b eli ef m a y b e t h at off e n d ers wi d el y us e t h e d ef e n c e, it is a d ef e n c e r ar el y us e d i n N ort h A m eri c a . I n e x pl ori n g t h e r es e ar c h o n e d u c ati n g j ur ors a b o ut N C R M D a n d h o w it m a y i m p a ct v er di ct d e cisi o ns, a r e vi e w of t h e r es e ar c h b y C orri g a n et al. ( 2 0 0 1) a n d M a e d er et al . ( 2 0 1 5), st at e d e d u c at i n g j ur ors a b o ut N C R M D di d n ot pr o d u c e a si g nifi c a nt diff er e n c e i n attit u d es ( as cit e d i n Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7). E vi d e n c e s u g g est e d t h at e d u c ati n g j ur ors a b o ut m e nt al dis or d ers m a y pl a y a r ol e i n t h e us e of N C R M D, alt h o u g h t h e iss u e of m e nt al h e alt h a n d j ur or pr ej u di c e i n N ort h A m eri c a is u n d erst u di e d (Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7 ). T o e nri c h r es e ar c h o n off e n d er p er c e pti o ns, t h e c as e of J or d a n K a n k a m fr o m E d m o nt o n, Al b ert a is r e vi e w e d. K a n k a m, f o u n d N C R M D e x p eri e n c e d s c hi z o p hr e ni c d el usi o ns d uri n g t h e off e n c e of st a b bi n g his m ot h er i n 2 0 1 3 ( W a k efi el d, 2 0 2 1). K a n k a m’s m ot h er s ur vi v e d t h e att a c k, a n d u p o n l e ar ni n g of his N C R M D v er di ct i n 2 0 1 5, w as pl e as e d h er s o n w o ul d b e r e c ei vi n g h el p, r at h er th a n p u nis h m e nt ( W a k efi el d, 2 0 2 1). M e di a r e p orts d es cri bi n g t his off e n c e st at e K a n k a m’s m ot h er, si x- y e ars si n c e t h e v er di ct, f elt t h at h er s o n w a s s er vi n g a s e nt e n c e wit h o ut e n d, a n d t h at t h er e w o ul d b e a r el e as e d at e if h e h a d b e e n s e nt e n c e d t hr o u g h c orr e cti o ns r at h er t h a n t h e m e di c al s yst e m ( W a k efi el d, 2 0 2 1). K a n k a m’s l a w y er, J a c q u eli n e P etri e, is q u ot e d: “ T his is s u p p os e d t o b e a c o m p assi o n at e, tr e at m e nt- ori e nt e d str e a m of cri mi n al j usti c e. T h eir u n d erl yi n g m e nt al dis or d er or ill n ess is t o b e t h e f o c us. O n c e t h at is pr o p erl y m a n a g e d a n d u n d er c o ntr ol a n d t h e y ar e n o l o n g er a si g nifi c a nt ris k t o p u bli c s af et y, or t h at ris k c a n b e m a n a g e d i n t h e p u bli c s o m e w a y t hr o u g h s u p er visi o n, t h e n t h e y ar e t o b e r el e as e d ” ( W a k efi el d, 2 0 2 1, p ar a. 1 5 ). M e di a , S o ci al M e di a, an d N C R M D S o ci al m e di a a n d t h e m e di a i n g e n er al, ar e a k e y m o d e of i nf or m ati o n d eli v er y a n d i nfl u e n c e w h e n it c o m es t o l e ar ni n g a b o ut t h e j usti c e s yst e m ( G a vri eli d es, 2 0 2 2). Wit h t h e i d e a 32 of i nfl u e n c e i n mi n d, G a vri eli d es st at ed “t h e m e di a c a n misr e pr es e nt j usti c e (t h e l a w), cr e ati n g c o nf usi o n a n d h ostilit y t h at ar e u nj ustifi a bl e a n d u nf air ” ( G a vri eli d es, 2 0 2 2, p. 4 1). T h e r es e ar c h of L e B e a u ( 2 0 2 0) dis c usse d t h e r ol e m e di a pl a ys i n i nf or mi n g p e o pl e a b o ut m e nt al h e alt h i nst a n c es i n t h e cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m, a n d t h at t h e m e di a is m ost li k el y t o r e p ort o n si g nifi c a nt or ‘ h orrifi c ’ n e ws w hi c h m a y l e a d t h e p u bli c t o ass o ci at e vi ol e n c e wit h m e nt al ill n ess ( L e B e a u, 2 0 2 0). A c o m m e nt q u ot e d b y L arr y C or ni es, st at ed , “If it bl e e ds it l ea ds ” ( Ri c h ar ds o n & F ull ert o n, 2 0 1 6, p. 2 3), i m pl yi n g t h at st ori es t h at r el at e t o cri mi n al atr o citi es ar e m or e li k el y t o g ar n er t h e att e nti o n of r e p ort e rs a n d t h er ef or e a p p e ar i n t h e n e ws . T h e g e n er al p u bli c , st at e d L e B e a u ( 2 0 2 0), is n ot g at h eri n g t h eir k n o wl e d g e of N C R M D b y r e a di n g s c h ol arl y r e p orts. Br e n d a n M c C a b e , a cl os e fri e n d t o M att h e w d e Gr o o d, a n d h ost of t h e p art y o n t h e ni g ht of d e Gr o o d’s off e n c e, st at e d t h e vi ol e n c e of t h e cri m es c o m mitt e d b y d e Gr o o d will o nl y f urt h er p er p et u at e sti g m a ar o u n d m e nt al ill n ess (M c C a b e, n. d.). M c C a b e st at e d, “ W e [ M c C a b e a n d d e Gr o o d] s h ar e a n i nti m at e e x p eri e nti al k n o wl e d g e of t h e i nt ers e cti o n al g a ps wit hi n o ur m e nt al h e alt h, j u di ci al, a n d s o ci al str u ct ur es ” ( M c C a b e, n. d., p ar a. 4). R es e ar c h dis c uss e d t h e r ol e of t h e m e di a i n r e p orti n g cri m e, a n d s u c h m e di a r e p orti n g c a n b e s e e n t o n ot o nl y e nt ert ai n a n d i nf or m r e a d ers b ut c a n h a v e a n i m p a ct o n f ost eri n g p u bli c o pi ni o ns o n w h at is d e e m e d ri g ht or wr o n g ( Ri c h ar ds o n & F ull ert o n, 2 0 1 6). W h e n r e p ort e d a p pr o pri at el y, s u c h cri m e r e p orti n g c a n b e s e e n t o b uil d c o m m u nit y r at h er t h a n b e di visi v e, b ut r e p ort ers n e e d t o u n d erst a n d t h e gr a vit y of t h eir i nfl u e n c e t hr o u g h r e p orti n g ( Ri c h ar ds o n & F ull ert o n, 2 0 1 6). G o oss e ns et al. ( 2 0 2 1) g at h ere d t h e m es fr o m s o ci al m e di a r e g ar di n g N C R M D, fi n di n g N C R M D is n ot vi e w e d f a v or a bl y i n t h e e y es of t h e p u bli c. G o oss e ns et al. ( 2 0 2 1) als o r e p orte d 33 t h at t h os e w h o us e s o ci al m e di a mistr ust a ut h orit y, dis pl a y e d s c e pti cis m as t o h o w N C R M D is j u di ci all y pr o c ess e d, a n d f elt t h e d ef e n c e of N C R M D is n ot s e e n as a tr u e p u nis h m e nt f or t h e cri m e, b ut r at h er as a n e asi er f or m of j usti c e s er v e d. Ot h er c o m m o n t h e m es r e p ort e d i n t h e m e di a i n cl u d e d N C R M D e q u ati n g t o a n ot g uilt y v er di ct a n d t h us a l a c k of a c c o u nt a bilit y f or t h e cri m e, t h e N C R M D v er di ct b ei n g vi e w e d as d a n g er o us t o t h e p u bli c, a n d a g e n er al l a c k of a w ar e n ess t o w ar ds t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e a n d m e nt al il l n ess ( G o oss e ns et al. , 2 0 2 1). Gi vi n g c o nt e xt t o t h e v ali dit y of s o ci al m e di a p osts, t h e r es e ar c h b y G o oss e ns et al. ( 2 0 2 1) r e c o g ni z ed t h e u n pr e di ct a bilit y of “ h o w m u c h o v erl a p e xists b et w e e n o n e’s b e h a vi o ur a n d utt er a n c es o n s o ci al m e di a , a n d o n e’s r e al - w orl d b e h a vi o ur, o pi ni o ns, a n d lif e ” ( p. 6 0). Alt h o u g h N C R M D is r e p ort e d t o b e a d ef e n c e r ar el y us e d f or m aj or cri m es (M e nt al H e alt h C o m missi o n of C a n a d a, 2 0 1 3 ), “[ m] a n y N C R M D c as e s l e a d t o m aj or m e di a c o v er a g e ” ( W hitl e y et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 6 9 8). It is t hr o u g h t his m e di a c o v er a g e t h at t h os e i n t h e m e nt al h e alt h fi el d p oi nt t o sti g m ati z ati o n of m e nt al ill n ess w h e n it is r e p ort e d b y t h e m e di a , “ b as e d o n st u di es s u g g esti n g t h at n e ws arti cl es of m e nt al ill n ess oft e n c o nt ai n sti g m atisi n g l a n g u a g e a n d i n a c c ur at e c o nt e nt ” ( W hitl e y et al., 2 0 1 7, p. 6 9 8). S u p p orti n g t h e w or ds of W hitl e y et al. ( 2 0 1 7), r es e ar c h p oi nts t o m e nt al ill n ess b ei n g vi e w e d n e g ati v el y w h e n vi ol e nt c as es ar e p u bli cl y r e p ort e d, wit h N C R M D c as es i n p arti c ul ar dr a wi n g n e g ati v e att e nti o n a n d r e a cti o n ( L a cr oi x et al., 2 0 1 7). W hitl e y et al. ( 2 0 1 7) r e p ort e d t h at m e di a c o v er a g e h as i m pr o v e d w h e n r e p orti n g o n m e nt al ill n ess, alt h o u g h t his i m pr o v e m e nt h as n ot b e e n s e e n i n m e di a c o v er a g e o n N CR M D, w hi c h c o nti n u es t o b e mis u n d erst o o d. A n a n al ysis of C a n a di a n n e ws p a p er arti cl es t h at dis c uss e d N C R M D o v er a f o ur- m o nt h p eri o d i n 2 0 1 5 w er e a n al ys e d, fi n di n g t h at arti cl es dis c ussi n g N C R M D w er e s e e n b y t h e r es e ar c h ers as o v er w h el mi n gl y e x pr essi n g n e g ati vit y a n d sti g m ati z ati o n ( W hitl e y et al., 2 0 1 7). Sti g m a s urr o u n di n g m e nt al ill n ess w as als o dis c uss e d i n t h e 34 arti cl e b y M c C a b e ( n. d.), s a yi n g it w as m e nt al ill n ess t h at c a us e d d e Gr o o d’s a cti o ns, a n d it w as t h e sti g m a s urr o u n di n g m e nt al ill n ess t h at pr e v e nt e d d e Gr o o d a n d his f a mil y a n d cl os e fri e n ds fr o m a c c e pti n g t h at d e Gr o o d w as s uff eri n g fr o m iss u es r el at e d t o m e nt al ill n e ss. R es e ar c h e x pl or e d t h e n u m b er of vi ol e nt N C R M D c as es c o m p ar e d t o t h e t ot al n u m b er of vi ol e nt cri m es c o m mitt e d. It w as st at e d, “ T h e f o c us o n a v er y s m all n u m b er of c as es p ai nts a n i n a c c ur at e pi ct ur e of vi ol e n c e a n d m e nt al ill n ess. T h e m or e m e nt al ill n ess is sti g m ati z e d, t h e h ar d er it is t o g et p e o pl e t o s e e k tr e at m e nt a n d t o st a y i n tr e at m e nt. Y et, tr e at m e nt is t h e m ost eff e cti v e pr e v e nti v e m e as ur e f or t h e s m all n u m b er of p e o pl e wit h m e nt al ill n ess w h o c o m mit vi ol e nt off e ns es ” ( M e nt al H e alt h C o m missi o n of C a n a d a, “ W h y p a yi n g att e nti o n t o sti g m a m att ers ” s e cti o n ). N C R M D st atisti cs r e p ort e d t o J usti c e C a n a d a d e m o nstr at e N C R M D off e n d ers d o n ot t y pi c all y c o m mit s eri o us cri m es: Fi g u r e 3. T y p e of off e n c e v ers us % of t ot al N C R M D p o p ul ati o n. T y p e of Off e n c e % of t ot al N C R P o p ul ati o n ( w ei g ht e d) H o mi ci d e 2. 6 % Att e m pt e d M ur d er 3. 3 % S e x u al Off e n c e 2. 1 % M e nt al H e alt h C o m missi o n of C a n a d a ( 2 0 1 3) F ut u r e Di r e cti o ns: N C R M D R ef o r m a n d P at h w a ys t o S o ci al A c c e pt a n c e T his r es e ar c h e v al u at e d t w o p at h w a ys of N C R M D r ef orm. S u c h r ef or m l o o ke d at t h e o p er ati o n ali zi n g of w or ds ass o ci at e d wit h t h e n a m e: n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er, a n d t h e c orr el ati o n b et w e e n r est or ati v e j usti c e a n d N C R M D. 35 T h e N a m e of N C R M D T h e n a m e ‘ n ot g uilt y b y r e as o n of i ns a nit y’ w as offi ci all y c h a n g e d i n 1 9 9 2 t o ‘ n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er’ ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2). T h is n a m e c h a n g e w as first dis c uss e d i n 1 9 8 6, wit h t h e g o al of m o d er ni zi n g t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e d ef e n c e, a n d pr o p osi n g t h e c h a n g e t o i n cl u d e t h e w or ds “ m e nt al dis or d er ” ( Pil o n, 2 0 0 2, p ar a. 5 ). T h e n a m e N C R M D h as b e e n us e d f or 3 0 y e ars, a n d is t h e n a m e i n us e f or t his l e g al d ef e n c e t o d a y. R es e ar c h s h o w e d t h at m or e att e nti o n is b ei n g gi v e n t o t h e dis c ussi o n of: ‘ w or ds m att er’, wit h di al o g ar o u n d t h e c h oi c e of w or ds o n e us es b e c o mi n g t o pi c al. A n o n-li n e li br ar y s e ar c h w as c o n d u ct e d usi n g t h e t er m ‘ w or ds m att er’ wit h a filt er of p e er -r e vi e w e d lit er at ur e i n all g e nr es. T h e first 4 0 j o ur n al arti cl es t o a p p e ar i n t his s e ar c h (t h e p o p ul ati o n f or t his s ur v e y) h a d p u bli c ati o n d at es b et w e e n t h e ti m efr a m e 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 2 2. Of t h es e d at es, t h e m aj orit y of arti cl es w er e p u blis h e d b et w e e n 2 0 1 8 a n d 2 0 2 1, wit h t h e m o d e of t his d at a c oll e cti o n b ei n g t h e y e ar 2 0 2 1. O nl y t h e y e ars i d e ntifi e d i n t h e arti cl e s ar e r e pr es e nt e d i n t his s ur v e y. F or e x a m pl e, t h er e w er e n o arti cl es f o u n d i n t his s e ar c h f or t h e y e ars 2 0 0 7 t o 2 0 1 0, a n d 2 0 1 2 t o 2 0 1 5. T his s ur v e y w as c o n d u ct e d t o s e e if t h er e is v ali dit y t o t h e ass u m pti o n t h at a f o c us o n t h e i m p ort a n c e of w or ds is gr o wi n g. T his s e ar c h r efl e ct e d a n i n cr e as e i n j o ur n al arti cl es wit h t h e s e ar c h t er m ‘ w or ds m att er’ i n t h e y e ars 2 0 1 8, 2 0 1 9, 2 0 2 0 a n d 2 0 2 1. Fr e q u e n c y f or t h e n u m b er of p e er r e vi e w e d j o ur n al arti cl es f o u n d i n t his s ur v e y ar e i d e ntifi e d b el o w: Fi g u r e 4. N u m b er of p e er- r e vi e w e d arti cl es b y y e ar f o u n d i n a n o nli n e li br ar y s e ar c h wit h t h e s e ar c h t er m ‘ w or ds m att er’: 37 T h e d efi niti o n of ‘ cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e’ is d efi n e d i n t w o p arts: t h e w or d ‘cri mi n all y ’ is d efi n e d as “ A c c or di n g t o cri mi n al l a w ” ( “ Cri mi n alit y ”, n. d.). T h e w or d ‘r es p o nsi bl e’ is d efi n e d as “ C a p a bl e of f ulfilli n g a n o bli g ati o n or d ut y; r eli a bl e, tr ust w ort h y, s e nsi bl e ” ( “ R es p o nsi bl e ”, n. d.). B y c h a n gi n g t h e w or ds fr o m ‘n ot g uilt y ’ t o ‘ n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e’, t h e d efi niti o n g o es fr o m: n ot h a vi n g off e n d e d or n ot b ei n g at f a ult, n ot d eli n q u e nt a n d n ot cri mi n al, n ot i n c urri n g g uilt, n ot d es er vi n g p u nis h m e nt a n d n ot c ul p a bl e, t o: n ot, a c c or di n g t o l a w, c a p a bl e of f ulfilli n g a n o bli g ati o n or d ut y ; not, a c c or di n g t o l a w, r eli a bl e, tr ust w ort h y or s e nsi bl e. T h e l att er p art of t h e N C R M D n a m e, w h er e ‘i ns a nit y’ b e c o m es ‘ m e nt al dis or d er’ , w e s e e i ns a nit y d efi n e d as “ T h e c o n diti o n of b ei n g i ns a n e; u ns o u n d n ess of mi n d as a c o ns e q u e n c e of br ai n -dis e as e; m a d n ess, l u n a c y ” ( “I ns a nit y ”, n. d.). M e nt al dis or d er is d efi n e d i n t w o p arts: ‘m e nt al ’ is d efi n e d as “ Of or r el ati n g t o t h e mi n d ”, a n d ‘ dis or d er’ is d efi n e d as, “ a bs e n c e or u n d oi n g of or d er or r e g ul ar arr a n g e m e nt; c o nf usi o n; c o nf us e d st at e or c o n diti o n ” ( “ Dis or d er ”, n. d.; “ M e nt al ”, n. d.). T h e f or m er d efi niti o n usi n g t h e d i cti o n ar y d efi niti o n r e a ds: by r e as o n of t h e c o n diti o n of b ei n g i ns a n e, u ns o u n d mi n d as a c o ns e q u e n c e of br ai n dis e as e, m a d n ess, a n d/ or l u n a c y. T h e c urr e nt d efi niti o n r e a ds: o n a c c o u nt of r el ati n g t o t h e mi n d t h e a bs e n c e or u n d oi n g of or d er or r e g ul ar a gr e e m e nt, c o nf usi o n a n d/ or c o nf us e d st at e or c o n diti o n. E x p a n di n g u p o n t h e m e a ni n g of t h e w or ds us e d, b ot h p ast a n d pr es e nt, t h e d efi niti o ns i n f ull r e a d as: P A S T: N ot h a vi n g off e n d e d or n ot b ei n g at f a ult, n ot d eli n q u e nt a n d n ot cri mi n al, n ot i n c urri n g g uilt, n ot d es er vi n g p u nis h m e nt a n d n ot c ul p a bl e b y r e as o n of t h e c o n diti o n of b ei n g i ns a n e, u ns o u n d mi n d as a c o ns e q u e n c e of br ai n dis e as e, m a d n ess, a n d/ or l u n a c y. 38 P R E S E N T: N ot, a c c or di n g t o l a w, c a p a bl e of f ulfilli n g a n o bli g ati o n or d ut y, r eli a bl e, tr ust w ort h y or s e nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of r el ati n g t o t h e mi n d t h e a bs e n c e or u n d oi n g of or d er or r e g ul ar arr a n g e m e nt, c o nf usi o n a n d/ or c o nf us e d st at e or c o n diti o n. I n a p pr e ci ati n g t h e i m p a ct of w ords, r es e ar c h st at e d “ T h e e m oti o n alit y of a w or d c a us es ‘ m or e att e nti o n’ t o b e d e v ot e d t o pr o c essi n g t h e i d e ntit y of t h e w or d, t h er e b y a m plif yi n g r es p o ns e c o m p etiti o n fr o m t h e w or d n a m e ” (H arris et al., 2 0 0 4, p. 4). T his r es e ar c h b y H arris et al. ( 2 0 0 4) st at ed e m oti o n al w or ds c a n “ pr o d u c e a d ef e nsi v e r e a cti o n ” i n sl o wi n g r es p o ns es, wit h st u di es c o n d u ct e d t h at s h o w a r el ati o ns hi p b et w e e n e m oti o n all y c h ar g e d w or ds a n d p arti ci p a nt r es p o ns es t o t h es e w or ds ( p. 4). R es e ar c h l o o ke d at t h e r e c e nt c h a n gi n g of t h e n a m e ‘ o v er d os e’ t o ‘ p ois o ni n g’, w h e n a n al ysi n g h o w n a m es ar e p er c ei v e d . T his n a m e c h a n g e , dis c uss e d i n t h e m e di a, s ai d r ef erri n g t o t h e f e nt a n yl crisis i n a cli ni c al w a y (wit h t h e c h a n g e fr o m ‘ o v er d os e’ t o ‘ p ois o ni n g’), m or e cl e arl y arti c ul at e d t h e f a ct u al r ef er e n c e: “ a p u bli c h e a lt h iss u e t h at c a n b e a d dr ess e d t hr o u g h t h e m e di c al s yst e m ” ( Alli n g h a m, 2 0 1 7, p ar a. 5). T h e w or d ‘ p ois o ni n g’, it w as st at e d, “is a t e c h ni c all y a c c ur at e di a g n osti c t er m f or w h at’s h a p p e ni n g i nsi d e t h e b o d y ” a n d t h at t o i m pl y p ers o n al r es p o nsi bilit y c a n “ e x a c er b at e sti g m a ” ( Alli n g h a m, 2 0 1 7, p ar as. 6- 7). Alli n g h a m ( 2 0 1 7) dis c uss e d t h e p o w er of sti g m a, a n d t h at sti g m a “ pr e v e nts p e o pl e fr o m s e e ki n g h el p ” ( p ar a. 8 ). T h er e is a n ot a bl e diff er e n c e b et w e e n dr u g us e a n d b ei n g f o u n d N C R M D, h o w e v er e x pl ori n g r es e ar c h c o m p ari n g t h e n a m e c h a n g e of ‘ o v er d os e’ t o ‘ p ois o ni n g’ e x pl or es t h e s u g g esti o n t h at a n a m e c h a n g e c o ul d f a cilit at e t h e r e m o v al of p ers o n al r es p o nsi bilit y t o r e d u c e sti g m a. Alli n g h a m ( 2 0 1 7) st at ed, “ W or ds m att er, a n d sti g m a is p o w erf ul ” ( p ar a. 8). R e c o m m e n d ati o n s f or a n a m e c h a n g e w o ul d b e fr o m: N ot Cri mi n all y R es p o nsi bl e o n A c c o u nt of M e nt al Dis or d er, t o: M e nt al Dis or d er Cri mi n al Di a g n osis , or, Cri mi n al Di a g n osis of 39 M e nt al D is or d er. B ot h s u g g esti o ns r e m o v e t h e w or d ‘r es p o nsi bilit y’ a n d e m p h asis e t h e m e di c al n at ur e of a di a g n osis. N C R M D a n d R est o r ati v e J usti c e T his r es e ar c h e x pl or e d c orr el ati o ns b et w e e n t h e d ef e n c e of N C R M D a n d t h e s yst e m of r est or ati v e j usti c e. T h e d efi niti o n of r est or ati v e j usti c e, b y M ars h all ( 1 9 9 9), is “ a pr o c ess w h er e b y all p arti es wit h a st a k e i n a p arti c ul ar off e n c e c o m e t o g et h er t o r es ol v e c oll e cti v el y h o w t o d e al wit h t h e aft er m at h of t h e off e n c e a n d its i m pli c ati o ns f or t h e f ut ur e ” (as cit e d i n Kir k w o o d, 2 0 2 2, p. 1; W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8, p. 3 7 7). T h e i d e a of r e h a bilit ati o n s a w a s hift i n t h e 1 9 6 0’s a n d 1 9 7 0’s, wit h a m o v e a w a y fr o m t h e m o d el of i nstit uti o n al c o nfi n e m e nt ( M c L a c hli n, 2 0 1 0.). M c L a c hli n writ es “ W h er e as b ef or e t h e l a w l o c k e d t h e m [ m e nt all y ill] i nt o i nstit uti o ns, n o w it m ust i nt erf a c e wit h t h e m i n s o ci et y ” ( M c L a c hli n, 2 0 1 0, p. 2 0). T h e c o n c e pt a n d us e of r est or ati v e j usti c e is n ot r estri ct e d t o cri mi n al m att ers ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8 ). R est or ati v e j usti c e i n v ol v es a n e m p h asis o n h e ali n g, r at h er t h a n p u nis h m e nt, w hil e off eri n g alt er n ati v es t o dis p ositi o ns of i n c ar c er ati o n ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8 ). F o r ms of R est o r ati v e J usti c e R est or ati v e j usti c e m a nif ests i n s e v er al f or ms, i n cl u di n g b ut n ot li mit e d t o, m e di ati o n, i nt er a cti o n b et w e e n t h e a c c us e d a n d vi cti m(s), s e nt e n ci n g cir cl es, a n d c o m m u nit y i n v ol v e m e nt ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8). T h e U nit e d N ati o ns d es cri b es t h e m ai n c at e g ori es of r est or ati v e j usti c e as: “( a) vi cti m off e n d er m e di ati o n; ( b) c o m m u nit y a n d f a mil y gr o u p c o nf er e n ci n g; ( c) ci r cl e s e nt e n ci n g; ( d) p e a c e m a ki n g cir cl es; a n d, ( e) r e p ar ati v e pr o b ati o n a n d c o m m u nit y b o ar ds a n d p a n els ” ( U nit e d N ati o ns, 2 0 0 6, p p. 1 4- 1 5). T h es e c at e g ori z ati o ns of r est or ati v e j usti c e ar e als o dis c uss e d i n t h e r es e ar c h of Wi nt er d y k ( 2 0 2 1), f urt h er e x p a n di n g o n t h e d efi niti o ns of vi cti m off e n d er m e di ati o n ( V O M), f a mil y gr o u p c o nf er e n ci n g, a n d cir cl e j usti c e. 40 V O M, als o k n o w n i n C a n a d a as t h e “ Kit c h e n er E x p eri m e nt ”, 1 9 7 4, ( p. 1 0 9), a pr o gr a m d esi g n e d cl os e t o Kit c h e n er, O nt ari o, h a d t w o pri m ar y ai ms: r e c o n cili ati o n a n d r estit uti o n ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1). V O M br o u g ht t o g et h er vi cti ms a n d off e n d ers w h er e t h e off e n d er off er e d a n a p ol o g y t o t h e vi cti m, pr o vi d e d a pl atf or m f or vi cti ms t o s p e a k t o t h e i m p a ct of t h e off e n c e a g ai nst t h e m, a n d o utli n e m o d es of r estit uti o n ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1). S e e n as a n “i n n o v ati v e pr o b ati o n pr o gr a m ”, V O M s s pr e a d i n us e a n d p o p ul arit y, alt h o u g h pri m aril y i n t h e ar e a of mi n or off e ns es ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1, p. 1 1 0). A s e c o n d v ari ati o n of V O M, d es cri b e d as “ Pris o n F ell o ws hi p C a n a d a ” ( p. 1 1 0), w as d eri v e d i n t h e mi d 1 9 7 0’s i n E n gl a n d ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1). Wit h o ut c o nti n uit y i n t h e pr o gr a m f e d er all y or pr o vi n ci all y, t h e pr o gr a m w as o nl y m o d er at el y us e d , wit h s u c h us e b ei n g t o pr o m ot e r est or ati v e j usti c e wit hi n c orr e cti o ns C a n a d a, a n d b y c o m m u niti es t hr o u g h l o c al e v e nts ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1). T h e s u c c ess of V O Ms v ari e d b as e d o n t h e m o d e of d eli v er y, diff eri n g b et w e e n i n- p ers o n a n d r e m ot e i nt er a cti o ns ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1). Wit h si mil arit y t o V O Ms e xists t h e vi cti m -off e n d er c o nf er e n c e ( V O C). T h e V O C bri n gs t o g et h er vi cti ms a n d off e n d ers i n a n e utr al e n vir o n m e nt, t o dis c uss t h e off e ns e, t h e h ar m c a us e d b y t h e off e ns e, a n d h o w r estit uti o n is m a d e, if p ossi bl e ( P a ul & S c h e n c k- H a mli n, 2 0 1 7). Vi cti ms ar e m or e li k el y t o us e V O C if t h e y f e el t h e o p p ort u nit y f or r estit uti o n e xists, a n d if t h eir o w n g o als i n t h e pr o c ess c o ul d b e m et ( P a ul & S c h e n c k- H a mli n, 2 0 1 7). S u c h g o als i n cl u d e w a nt i n g t o h el p t h e off e n d er, or t o as k t h e off e n d er q u esti o ns ( P a ul & S c h e n c k- H a mli n, 2 0 1 7). P a ul a n d S c h e n c k - H a mli n ( 2 0 1 7) r e p orte d t h at V O Cs ar e utili z e d i n sit u ati o ns of s m all er off e ns es. F a mil y gr o u p c o nf er e n ci n g ( F G C) ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1), als o k n o w n as c o m m u nit y a n d f a mil y gr o u p c o nf er e n ci n g ( U nit e d N ati o ns, 2 0 0 6), w as c o n c e pt u ali z e d i n N e w Z e al a n d a n d br o u g ht t o lif e cir c a 1 9 8 9 ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1) . As t h e n a m e s u g g ests, t h e c or e of F G C is e n g a gi n g a n d e m p o w eri n g f a mili es as a w h ol e, wit h t h e pr ot e cti o n a n d s af et y of c hil dr e n wit hi n t h e f a mil y 41 b ei n g of pri m ar y c o n c er n a n d f o c us, a n d att e nti o n gi v e n t o c ult ur al di v ersit y ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1). Wit hi n t h e r e al m of F G Cs w e s e e t h e us e of “ vi cti m i m p a ct p a n els ” ( VI P), als o k n o w n as “ vi cti m -off e n d er p a n els ” ( V O P), wit h s u c h titl es b ei n g us e d i nt er c h a n g e a bl y i n C a n a d a ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1, p. 1 1 2). V O Ps h a v e a br o a d us e i n C a n a d a b y t h e w ell - k n o w n a d v o c a c y gr o u p, M ot h ers A g ai nst Dr u n k Dri vi n g ( M A D D) ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1). T h e V O P pr o gr a m i n C a n a d a is d es cri b e d as “ h a vi n g a m e di ati o n a n d r e c o n cili ati o n as p e ct ” a n d “ dr a ws o n l e g al a c c o u nt a bilit y, e m p h asis o n d et err e n c e, a n d m or al r es p o nsi bilit y ” ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1, p. 1 1 2). R e p ar ati v e pr o b ati o n a n d c o m m u nit y b o ar ds a n d p a n els, a st a n d- al o n e c at e g or y b y t h e U nit e d N ati o ns, als o f all wit hi n t his c at e g or y. T h e d efi niti o n of cir cl e j usti c e e x pl or es t h e fi n al c at e g or y of r est or ati v e j usti c e , wit h c ir cl e j usti c e a n d p e a c e m a ki n g cir cl es b ei n g i nt ert wi n e d i n t h eir d efi niti o ns. Q u oti n g t h e r es e ar c h of Pr a nis et al. ( 2 0 0 3), Wi nt er d y k ( 2 0 2 1) d es cri b es t h e disti n ct t y p es of cir cl e j usti c e t o i n cl u d e: “r ei nt e gr ati o n cir cl es, h e ali n g cir cl es, s e nt e n ci n g cir cl es, t al ki n g cir cl es, a n d s u p p ort cir cl es ” wit h t h e m ost c o m m o n pr a cti c e wit hi n A b ori gi n al c o m m u niti es b ei n g h e ali n g cir cl es ( p. 1 1 3). T his r est or ati v e j usti c e pr a cti c e h as a p arti c ul ar f o c us o n c o nfli ct r es ol uti o n, w hi c h e n c a ps ul at es “ m or al r es p o nsi bilit y , l e g al a c c o u nt a bilit y, a n d r e pr essi o n of wr o n gf ul b e h a vi or ” ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1, p. 1 1 3). S e nt e n ci n g cir cl es, al b eit a pr a cti c e pri m aril y wit hi n I n di g e n o us c ult ur e b ut a d a pt e d f or C a n a di a n j u di ci al s yst e ms, bri n g all p arti es of t h e off e ns e t o g et h er, i n cl u di n g t h e j u d g e a n d l a w y ers ( M o n c h ali n, 2 0 1 6). T h e p arti es, i n cl u di n g t h e vi cti m a n d off e n d er, h ol d t h e pr o c e e di n gs i n a cir cl e f or m ati o n, wit h t h e j u d g e r es p o nsi bl e f or r e n d eri n g a d e cisi o n ( M o n c h ali n, 2 0 1 6). 42 Alt e r n ati v es t o R et ri b uti v e J usti c e M a n y ass u m e p u nis h m e nt is n e c ess ar y aft er a cri mi n al off e n c e is c o m mitt e d ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8 ). O n e alt er n ati v e t o p u nis h m e nt is r est or ati v e j usti c e ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 08 ). R est or ati v e j usti c e is a b o ut gi vi n g a v oi c e t o t h e vi cti ms, t o s h ar e t h eir st or y of vi cti mi z ati o n, t h e i m p a ct of t h e vi cti mi z ati o n, a n d t o p arti ci p at e i n t h e r est or ati o n of j usti c e, wit h a f o c us o n h e ali n g r at h er t h a n p u nis h m e nt ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8). Si mil ariti es c a n b e dr a w n b et w e e n N C R M D a n d r est or ati v e j usti c e i n t h at t h e pr o c ess f or j usti c e is n ot r etri b uti v e, b ut r at h er o n h e ali n g t h e a c c us e d. Alt h o u g h t h e e m p h asis is o n h e ali n g, p u nis h m e nt, st at es W e n z el et al. ( 2 0 08), c a n still b e p art of t h e r est or ati v e j usti c e pr a cti c e. W e n z el et al. ( 2 0 0 8) dis c uss e d a disr u pti o n t o t h e “ m or al b al a n c e ” w h e n a cri m e is c o m mitt e d a n d ri g hti n g t his i m b al a n c e will r est or e j usti c e ( p. 3 7 8). C o n n e cti o n B et w e e n R est o r ati v e J usti c e a n d N C R M D G a vri eli d es ( 2 0 2 2, p. 6 0) as k e d , “ w h at is r est or ati v e j usti c e off eri n g t h at w e d o n’t alr e a d y k n o w p hil os o p hi c all y ? ”. T his q u esti o n e x pl or es h o w s o ci et y vi e w s N C R M D t o d a y a n d h o w it c o ul d b e vi e w e d i n t h e f ut ur e as r est or ati v e j usti c e m e as ur es g ai n p o p ul arit y i n t h e cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m. R es e ar c h st at e d t h e p u nis h m e nt of a n off e n d er n e e ds t o b e pr o p orti o n at e t o t h e “s e v erit y of t h e wr o n g d oi n g ” ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8, p. 3 7 5). W e n z el et al. r e p ort e d t h er e ar e c h all e n g es i n t h e ass u m pti o n t h at p u nis hi n g a n off e n d er is r e q uir e d i n or d er t o h a v e j usti c e r est or e d ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8 ). I n t his v ei n, t h er e is als o dis c ussi o n t h at “t h er e is littl e a gr e e m e nt o n h o w b est t o c o ntr ol or pr e v e nt cri m e ” ( Wi nt er d y k, 2 0 2 1, p. 1 0 7 ). Cri m es c o m mitt e d, r e g ar dl ess of t h e i nt e nti o n, dis e m p o w er t h e vi cti ms a n d t h e aff e ct e d c o m m u niti es, a n d c h a n g e t h e p o w er r el ati o ns hi p b et w e e n t h e off e n d er a n d t he vi cti ms (W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8). Citi n g t h e w or k of 43 M ur p h y a n d H a m pt o n, ( 1 9 8 8), it w as st at e d, “I nt e nti o n al wr o n g d oi n g i ns ults us a n d att e m pts (s o m eti m es s u c c essf ull y) t o d e gr a d e us – a n d t h us it i n v ol v es a ki n d of i nj ur y t h at is n ot m er el y t a n gi bl e a n d s e nsi bl e ” ( as cit e d i n W e n z el, 2 0 0 8, p. 3 8 0). It is i m p ort a nt t o n ot e, “ N C R M D d o es n ot n e g at e t h e el e m e nts of a n off e n c e ” ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 8, p. 5). T his r es e ar c h i d e ntifi e d t h at h a vi n g as p e cts of t h e N C R M D pr o c ess f all u n d er t h e u m br ell a of r est or ati v e j usti c e, d o es n ot n e g at e t h e pr o c ess of j usti c e. W e n z el et al. ( 2 0 0 8) st at e d, t h e pr a cti c e of r est or ati v e j usti c e is a b o ut gi vi n g a v oi c e a n d i n v ol v e m e nt i n t h e j usti c e pr o c ess t o all aff e ct e d p arti es: t h e a c c us e d, t h e vi cti ms, a n d t h e aff e ct e d c o m m u niti es, a n d t h at r etri b uti v e j usti c e ( or p u nis h m e nt) is o n e- si d e d ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8 ). T his p oi nt is f urt h er e x p a n d e d i n W e n z el’s r es e ar c h w hi c h st at e d, “ b e c a us e cri m e is c o nsi d er e d t h e d o m ai n of t h e st at e, t h er e is o nl y a li mit e d r ol e f or t h e st a k e h ol d ers t h e ms el v es ” ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8, p. 3 7 7). A q u esti o n t o as k w h e n c o nsi d eri n g t h e a p pli c ati o n of r est or ati v e j usti c e t o N C R M D: c o ul d r est or ati v e j usti c e b e eff e cti v el y a p pli e d t o e v er y l e v el of off e n c e, fr o m s u m m ar y t o i n di ct a bl e? T his q u esti o n l e a ds r es e ar c h t o i d e ntif y t h e r at e of i n ci d e nts, a n d pr e v al e n c e of , vi ol e n c e i n t h os e t h at cl ai m N C R M D. L ati m er a n d L a wr e n c e ( 2 0 0 6) p oi nt e d t o t h e r arit y of N C R M D c as es i n C a n a d a, o c c urri n g i n 1. 8 p er t h o us a n d cri mi n al c as es p er y e ar ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5). R es e ar c h st at e d t h at b et w e e n t h e ti m efr a m e of 1 9 9 2 t o 2 0 0 4, a d missi o ns i nt o t h e R e vi e w B o ar d s yst e m i n cr e as e d si g nifi c a ntl y i n C a n a d a, wit h t hr e e pr o vi n c es, Britis h C ol u m bi a, O nt ari o a n d Q u e b e c, b ei n g a n al y s e d, s h o wi n g v ari ati o n b y pr o vi n c e, wit h i n cr e as es e x p eri e n c e d i n O nt ari o a n d a sli g ht d e cli n e i n r at es i n Britis h C ol u m bi a (J a ns m a n - H art et al., 2 0 1 1). S u p p orti n g d o c u m e nt ati o n st at ed “ m ost p e o pl e w h o ar e N C R M D- a c c us e d h a v e n ot c o m mitt e d off e n c es i n v ol vi n g s eri o us 44 vi ol e n c e ” ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5, p. 9 4). T h e M e nt al H e alt h C o m missi o n of C a n a d a ( 2 0 1 3), r e p ort e d t h at “ a m o n g N C R M D c as es, 8 % i n v ol v e s eri o us vi ol e n c e ”, a n d “i n C a n a d a, c as es i n v ol vi n g a n off e n d er wit h a m e nt al dis or d er m a k e u p l ess t h a n 3 % of vi ol e nt off e ns es ” ( Y a m a m ot o et al., 2 0 1 7). R es e ar c h r e p ort e d t h at “ N C R M D is o nl y c o nsi d er e d i n a s m all n u m b er of c as es ” ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 9, p. 1 0). T h e r es e ar c h of G a vri eli d es ( 2 0 2 2) st at e d, “t h er e ar e t w o t y p es of j usti c e: t h e l a wf ul a n d f air n ess ” ( p. 5 1), wit h f air n ess b ei n g s e e n as m or e a bstr a ct . Q u oti n g t h e w or k of Hill et al. ( 2 0 0 5), t h e w or d j usti c e is d efi n e d as “r ef ers t o f air n ess wit h r e g ar d t o o ut c o m es, pr o c e d ur es, a n d i nt er a cti o n ” ( as cit e d i n P a ul & S c h e n c k- H a mli n, 2 0 1 7, p. 4 9). R es e ar c h st at e d t h at f or j usti c e t o b e r est or e d, t h er e n e e ds t o b e a s o ci al c o ns e ns us t h at t h e v al u es a n d pri n ci pl es o n c e h ar m e d h a v e b e e n r est or e d, w hi c h is s e e n as a n iss u e wit h r est or ati v e j usti c e ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 0 8 ). L o o ki n g at t w o diff er e nt f or ms of j usti c e, r etrib uti v e a n d r est or ati v e, lit er at ur e p oi nts t o t h e q u esti o n p os e d b y G a vri eli d es ( 2 0 2 2): “ H o w c a n t h er e b e t w o f or ms of j usti c e f or t h e s a m e cri mi n al a ct ? ” ( p. 1 3 8). Ot h er r es e ar c h st at e d it is p ossi bl e t h at p u nis h m e nt, alt h o u g h r etri b uti v e, “ c o ul d als o s er v e t o r est or e v al u es ” ( W e n z el et al., 2 0 08, p. 3 8 1). T h es e q u ot es gi v e cr e d e n c e t o t h e n oti o n of i nt ers e cti o n alit y b et w e e n N C R M D a n d r est or ati v e j usti c e, a n d as st at e d b y W e n z el et al. ( 2 0 08 ), p u nis h m e nt a n d r est or ati v e j usti c e c a n h a p p e n t o g et h er. C o n cl usi o n T his r es e ar c h e x pl or e d t h e r e q uir e m e nt t o m a k e t h e d ef e n c e of N C R M D m or e s o ci all y a c c e pt a bl e , wit h a f o c us o n h o w N C R M D is vi e w e d t o d a y, h o w t h os e vi e ws ar e f or m e d, h o w t h e vi cti ms of N C R M D p er c ei v e t h e s yst e m, a n d wit h a n e y e t o t w o pr os p e cti v e m et h o ds f or N C R M D r ef or m: c h a n gi n g t h e n a m e of N C R M D a n d cl assif yi n g N C R M D wit hi n t h e r est or ati v e j usti c e ar e n a. 45 T h e N C R M D d esi g n ati o n is n’t g oi n g a n y w h er e, s u p p ort e d i n t h e r es e ar c h of T h e N ati o n al Tr aj e ct or y Pr oj e ct of I n di vi d u als F o u n d N ot Cri mi n all y R es p o nsi bl e o n A c c o u nt of M e nt al Dis or d er i n C a n a d a, w hi c h st at e d “t h er e is a fir ml y est a blis h e d l e g al d o ctri n e i n cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e ms ar o u n d t h e w orl d t h at r e c o g ni z es t h at it is i n a p pr o pri at e t o p u nis h p e o pl e w h o d o n ot h a v e t h e c a p a cit y t o f or m cri mi n al i nt e nt at t h e ti m e of a n off e n c e” ( Cr o c k er et al. , 2 0 1 3, p. 9 6). T h e N C R M D d ef e n c e is a utili z e d d ef e n c e a m o n gst t h os e d e e m e d “i n c a p a bl e of m e eti n g t h e b asi c c o g niti v e r e q uir e m e nts t h at cri mi n al l a w r e q uir es f or pr es cri pti o n of r es p o nsi bilit y ” ( B ar o n, 2 0 1 8, p. 5). A n d , “ Si n c e ti m e i m m e m ori al, cri mi n al l a w s yst e ms h a v e c o nsi d er e d t h e si m pl e i d e a t h at a n a c c us e d p ers o n s h o ul d n ot b e c o n vi ct e d w h e n t h eir ill e g al b e h a vi o ur st e m m e d fr o m a dis e as e of t h e mi n d ” ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5, p. 9 4). E ns uri n g s yst e ms ar e i n pl a c e f or e v er y o n e’s pr ot e cti o n , r es e ar c h st at e d “ A tr ul y s af e s o ci et y d o es n ot c h a n g e t h at est a blis h e d pri n ci pl e b y i n c ar c er ati n g p e o pl e wit h m e nt al dis or d ers – or b y f urt h er sti g m ati zi n g t h e m ” w hil e ( B ailli e, 2 0 1 5, p. 9 4). T his r es e ar c h d o es n ot n e g at e t h e i m p ort a n c e of t h e d ef e n c e of m e nt al dis or d er, b ut r at h er s e e ks t o e x pl or e w h y t h e d ef e n c e m a y b e n e g ati v el y p er c ei v e d a n d w h at c h a n g es c o ul d b e i m pl e m e nt e d t o g ar n er m or e s o ci al a c c e pt a n c e. T h e r es e ar c h f or t his t h esis d e m o nstr at es c o nti n u e d sti g m a t o w ar ds m e nt al ill n ess, a n d sti g m a t o w ar ds t h os e w h o cl ai m N C R M D. Sti g m a m a y pr e v e nt off e n d ers fr o m r e c ei vi n g tr e at m e nt, or t h e f a mil y a n d fri e n ds of off e n d ers a d mitti n g tr e at m e nt is n e e d e d. Vi cti ms r e p ort i n t h e m e di a t h at t h e y d o n ot f e el i n v ol v e d or s u p p ort e d i n t h e N C R M D pr o c ess. Us e of t h e N C R M D d ef e n c e c a n pr oj e ct mis c o n c e pti o ns t h at j usti c e h as n ot b e e n s er v e d, a n d t h e off e n d er h as n ot b e e n h el d a c c o u nt a bl e f or t h eir cri m e(s). Off e n d ers m a y b e r el u ct a nt t o cl ai m N C R M D b e c a us e of t h e a m bi g uit y ar o u n d t h e l e n gt h of m e di c al d et e nti o n, w hi c h c o ul d m e a n m or e 46 off e n d ers w h o n e e d tr e at m e nt ar e n ot r e c ei vi n g it. A d ef e n c e f or t h os e s uff eri n g fr o m m e nt al ill n ess a n d di v ersi o n fr o m t h e cri mi n al j usti c e ar e n a t o a pl a c e of m e d i c al r e h a bilit ati o n a n d tr e at m e nt is a n e c ess ar y f u n cti o n wit hi n t h e l e g al o pti o ns. T h e N C R M D pr o c ess a n d s u g g esti o ns f or r ef or m w o ul d b e n efit gr e atl y fr o m f urt h er r es e ar c h. T his t h esis e x pl or e d t w o s u g g esti o ns f or N C R M D r ef or m: c h a n gi n g t h e n a m e of N C R M D, a n d a p pl yi n g r est or ati v e j usti c e t o t h e pr a cti c e of N C R M D. R est or ati v e j usti c e m e as ur es t hr o u g h V O M a n d V O C m a y b e a n ar e a of f urt h er r es e ar c h . I m pr o vi n g t h e s yst e m of N C R M D s o t h at off e n d ers n e e di n g m e di c al tr e at m e nt r e c ei v e it, hi g hli g hts t h e s u g g esti o n of i m pl e m e nti n g m or e c o n cr et e b e n c h m ar ks f or d et er mi ni n g hi g h-ris k a c c us e d d esi g n ati o ns a n d dis c h ar g e r e q uir e m e nts . R ef or m t o t h e l e g al d ef e n c e of N C R M D c o ul d b e o p er ati o n ali z e d s e v er al w a ys, wit h r es e ar c h i n di c ati n g t h at e d u c ati n g t h e p u bli c o n N C R M D, s etti n g m or e p ar a m et ers ar o u n d st a n d ar di z e d crit eri a f or N C R M D hi g h -ris k a c c us e d, a n d i n cr e asi n g vi cti m i n v ol v e m e nt i n t h e N C R M D s yst e m c o ul d m o d er ni z e a n d r ef or m t h e d ef e n c e of N C R M D. R ef or m a n d m o d er ni z ati o n of t h e N C R M D s yst e m a n d d ef e n c e s e e ms a l o gi c al n e xt st e p . 47 R ef e r e n c es A d a ms, A., S m art, P., & Si gis m u n d H uff, A. ( 2 0 1 6). S h a d es of gr e y: G ui d eli n es f or w or ki n g wit h t h e gr e y lit er at ur e i n s yst e m ati c r e vi e ws f or m a n a g e m e nt a n d or g a ni z ati o n al st u di es. I nt er n ati o n al J o ur n al of M a n a g e m e nt R e vi e ws, 1 9 ( 4), 4 3 2- 4 5 4. htt ps:// o nli n eli br ar y. wil e y. c o m/ d oi/f ull/ 1 0. 1 1 1 1/ij mr. 1 2 1 0 2 Alli n g h a m, J. ( 2 0 1 7, S e pt e m b er 2). Is t h e f e nt a n yl sit u ati o n a n o v er d os e crisis or a p ois o ni n g crisis ? C B C N e ws. htt ps:// w w w. c b c. c a/ n e ws/ c a n a d a/ britis h - c ol u mbi a/ o v er d os e- f e nt a n yl1. 4 2 6 9 9 1 7 B ailli e, P. ( 2 0 1 5, M ar c h). T h e v al u a bl e ( a n d o n g oi n g) st u d y, t h e N ati o n al Tr aj e ct or y Pr oj e ct a d dr ess es m a n y m yt hs a b o ut t h e v er di ct of n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u n t of m e nt al dis or d er. T h e C a n a di a n J o ur n al of Ps y c hi atr y , 6 0 ( 3), 9 3- 9 5. htt ps://j o ur n als.s a g e p u b. c o m/ d oi/ p df/ 1 0. 1 1 7 7/ 0 7 0 6 7 4 3 7 1 5 0 6 0 0 0 3 0 1 B ar o n, E. ( 2 0 1 9). T h e b or d ers of cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y: D iffi c ult c as es f or t h e l a w’s d ef a ult u n d erst a n di n g of p e o pl e. Ps y c h ol o g y, Cri m e & L a w , 2 5 ( 6), 6 9 3- 7 0 8. htt ps:// w w w t a n df o nli n e- c o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ d oi/f ull/ 1 0. 1 0 8 0/ 1 0 6 8 3 1 6 X. 2 0 1 9. 1 5 6 5 4 0 9 Br o ds k y, G. ( 2 0 1 7). Pr o c e e d wit h e xtr e m e c a uti o n: T h e n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e d ef e n c e, M a nit o b a L a w J o ur n al , 8 9 , 2 0 1 7 C a n LII D o cs 3 9 0. htt ps:// w w w. c a nlii. or g/ e n/ c o m m e nt ar y/ d o c / 2 0 1 7 C a nLII D o cs 3 9 0 ? z o u pi od e b u g #!fr a g m e nt//( h as h:( c h u n k:( a n c h or T e xt:''), n ot es Q u er y:'',s cr oll C h u n k:! n,s e ar c h Q u er y : br o ds k y,s e ar c h S ort B y: R E L E V A N C E,t a b:s e ar c h)) Cri mi n al C o d e , R S C 1 9 8 5, c C- 4 6 Cri mi n all y. ( n. d.). I n O xf or d E n glis h di cti o n ar y. ( n. d.). R etri e v e d 2 0 2 1. htt ps:// w w w -o e d c o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ vi e w/ E ntr y/ 4 4 4 3 2 ?r e dir e ct e d Fr o m = cri mi n all y # ei d 48 Cr o c k er, A., Ni c h olls, T., S et o, M., & C ot e, G. ( 2 0 1 3). T h e n ati o n al tr aj e ct or y pr oj e ct of i n di vi d u als f o u n d n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er i n C a n a d a. C a n a di a n J o ur n al of Ps y c hi atr y , 6 0 ( 3), 9 6- 9 7. htt ps://j o ur n als.s a g e p u b. c o m/ d oi/ p df/ 1 0. 1 1 7 7/ 0 7 0 6 7 4 3 7 1 5 0 6 0 0 0 3 0 3 Dis or d er. ( n. d.). I n O xf or d E n glis h di cti o n ar y. ( n. d.). R etri e v e d 2 0 2 1. htt ps:// w w w -o e d c o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ vi e w/ E ntr y/ 5 4 8 5 9 ?rs k e y = 2 M 9 u X Q &r es ult = 1 # ei d D or m er, D. ( 2 0 1 9, N o v e m b er 2 0). ‘ F e eli n g us e d a n d u n h e ar d’: Al b ert a r e vi e w b o ar d c h air Jill T a yl or r esi g ns . C T V N e ws. htt ps:// c al g ar y. ct v n e ws. c a/f e eli n g -us e d -a n d -u n h e ar d -al b ert a r e vi e w-b o ar d -c h air -jill-t a yl or-r esi g ns- 1. 4 6 9 4 6 9 0 E d m o nt o n J o u r n al. ( 2 0 1 9, S e pt e m b er 1 7). M att h e w d e Gr o o d r e vi e w. [ Vi d e o]. Y o u T u b e. htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ w at c h ? v = K Q E e 0 k z e h 4 E G a vri eli d es, T. ( 2 0 2 2). P o w er, r a c e, a n d j usti c e. T h e r est or ati v e di al o g u e w e will n ot h a v e. R o utl e d g e T a yl or & Fr a n cis Gr o u p . Gl o b al N e ws. ( 2 0 2 1, S e pt e m b er 8). R e vi e w b o ar d h e ars M att h e w d e Gr o o d’s ps y c h osis is i n f ull r e missi o n. T h e C a n a di a n Pr ess. htt ps:// gl o b al n e ws. c a/ n e ws/ 8 1 7 6 6 6 4/ c al g ar y- br e nt w o o dfi v e-m att h e w -d e - gr o o d-al b ert a -r e vi e w-b o ar d -h e ari n g/ G o oss e ns, I., J or d a n, M., & Ni c h olls, T. ( 2 0 2 1 , A pril 1). # A b olis h N C R: A q u alit ati v e a n al ysis of s o ci al m e di a n arr ati v es ar o u n d t h e i ns a nit y d ef e n c e . C a n a di a n J o ur n al of Cri mi n ol o g y a n d Cri mi n al J usti c e 6 3 ( 2), 4 6- 6 7. htt ps:// w e b - p- e bs c o h ostc o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ e h ost/ p df vi e w er/ p df vi e w er ? vi d = 1 &si d = 4 4 b 0 5 0 8 d- c 9 6 e- 4 3 a 7 9 7 9 7- 9 5 7f 8 0 6 2 4 2 3 a % 4 0r e dis 49 G o v er n m e nt of C a n a d a ( n. d.). T h e r e vi e w b o ar d s yst e ms i n C a n a d a: A n o v er vi e w of r es ults fr o m t h e m e nt all y dis or d er e d a c c us e d d at a c oll e cti o n st u d y. htt ps:// w w w.j usti c e. g c. c a/ e n g/r p pr/ csj -sj c/js p-sj p/rr 0 6 1/ p 1. ht ml Gr a nt h a m, L. ( 2 0 1 4). Bill C - 1 4: A st e p b a c k w ar ds f or t h e ri g hts of m e nt all y dis or d er e d off e n d ers i n t h e C a n a di a n cri mi n al j usti c e s yst e m. A p p e al: R e vi e w of C urr e nt L a w a n d L a w R ef or m 1 9 ( 6 3), 6 3- 8 1. htt ps:// c a nlii. c a/t/ 2 7r n Gr ossi, L., & Gr e e n, D . ( 2 0 1 7). A n i nt er n ati o n al p ers p e cti v e o n cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y a n d m e nt al ill n ess. Pr a cti c e I n n o v ati o ns. 2 ( 1), 2- 1 2. htt ps:// d oi: 1 0. 1 0 3 7/ pri 0 0 0 0 0 3 7 G uilt y. ( n. d.). I n O xf or d E n glis h di cti o n ar y. ( n. d.). R etri e v e d 2 0 2 1. htt ps:// w w w -o e d c o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ vi e w/ E ntr y/ 8 2 3 7 5 ?r e dir e ct e d Fr o m = g uilt y # ei d H a a g, A., W o nsi a k, K., & D u nf or d, D. ( 2 0 2 1, S e pt e m b er 3). Al b ert a n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e pr oj e ct: R at es of p ers o ns f o u n d N C R M D a n d a bs ol ut e dis c h ar g es i n Al b ert a f oll o wi n g t h e n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e r ef or m a ct. J o ur n al of C o m m u nit y S af et y & W ell -B ei n g , 6 ( 3), 1 2 1- 1 2 6. htt ps:// w w w.j o ur n al cs w b. c a/i n d e x. p h p/ cs w b/ arti cl e/ vi e w/ 2 0 7/ 5 4 7 H arris, C., P as hl er, H. & C o b ur n, N. ( 2 0 0 4). M or a y r e visit e d: H i g h-pri orit y aff e cti v e sti m uli a n d vis u al s e ar c h. T h e Q u art erl y J o ur n al of E x p eri m e nt al Ps y c h ol o g y , 5 7 ( 1), 1- 3 1. htt ps:// w e b -s- e bs c o h ostc o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ e h ost/ p df vi e w er/ p df vi e w er ? vi d = 1 &si d = 4f a e 2 2f 1- d df 7- 4 1f 89 e 9 6- 1 5 0 d 9 9 2 b 5 a 2 3 % 4 0r e dis H u nt, C., R e d d o n, J., H a a g, A., & D ur a nt e, S. ( 2 0 1 9). N C R M D L e g al a n d Et hi c al Iss u es. I n U. Willi a ms, D. J o n es & J. R e d d o n ( E ds.), P oli c e r es p o ns e t o m e nt al h e alt h i n C a n a d a , ( p p. 2 9 6- 3 1 2). C a n a di a n S c h ol ars. htt ps:// b o o ks. g o o gl e. c a/ b o o ks ? hl = e n &lr = &i d = y u wr E A A A Q B AJ & oi =f n d & p g = P A 2 9 6 & d 50 q =r est or ati v e +j usti c e + a n d + N C R M D & ots = ws O e x n k z V g &si g = M T 7 4 N 6 mI ZSj p A p o b M 6 4 8 C h 9 B z U # v = o n e p a g e & q =r est or ati v e % 2 0j usti c e % 2 0 a n d % 2 0 N C R M D &f =f als e I ns a nit y. ( n. d.). I n O xf or d E n glis h di cti o n ar y. ( n. d.). R etri e v e d 2 0 2 1. htt ps:// w w w -o e d c o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ vi e w/ E ntr y/ 9 6 6 1 2 ?r e dir e ct e d Fr o m =i ns a nit y # ei d J a ns m a n- H art, E., S et o, M., Cr o c k er, A., Ni c h olls, T., & C ot e, G. ( 2 0 1 0, D e c e m b er 7). I nt er n ati o n al tr e n ds i n d e m a n d f or f or e nsi c m e nt al h e alt h s er vi c es. I nt er n ati o n al J o ur n al of F or e nsi c M e nt al H e alt h , 1 0 ( 4). htt ps:// w w w.t a n df o nli n e. c o m/ d oi/ a bs/ 1 0. 1 0 8 0/ 1 4 9 9 9 0 1 3. 2 0 1 1. 6 2 5 5 9 1 Kir k w o o d, S. ( 2 0 2 2 ). A g gr essi o n a n d vi ol e nt b e h a vi or. Els e vi er , 6 3, 1- 1 0. htt ps:// d oi. or g/ 1 0. 1 0 1 6/j. a v b. 2 0 2 1. 1 0 1 6 8 8 Kr u g el, L. ( 2 0 1 9, O ct o b er 4). Kill er s h o ul d n ot r et ur n t o c o m m u nit y, Al b e rt a j usti c e mi nist er s a ys. C a n a d a’s N ati o n al O bs er v er. htt ps:// w w w. n ati o n al o bs er v er. c o m/ 2 0 1 9/ 1 0/ 0 4/ n e ws/ kill er-s h o ul d- n ot- r et ur n- c o mm u nit yal b ert a -j usti c e-mi nist er -s a ys L a cr oi x, R., O’ S h a u g h n ess y, R., M c N eil, D., & Bi n d er, R. ( 2 0 1 7). C o ntr o v ersi es c o n c er ni n g t h e C a n a di a n n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e r ef or m a ct. T h e J o ur n al of t h e A m eri c a n A c a d e m y of Ps y c hi atr y a n d t h e L a w , 4 5 ( 1), 4 4- 5 1. htt ps:// w e b. ar c hi v e. or g/ w e b/ 2 0 1 8 1 1 0 5 0 2 2 6 3 9i d / htt p://j a a pl. or g: 8 0/ c o nt e nt/j a a pl/ 4 5/ 1/ 4 4 .f ull. p df L ar s e n, K. ( 2 0 2 2, M ar c h 3). All a n S c h o e n b or n a ns w ers q u esti o ns d uri n g B. C. r e vi e w b o ar d h e ari n g i nt o e x p a n d e d r el e as e . C B C N e ws . htt ps:// w w w. c b c. c a/ n e ws/ c a n a d a/ britis h c ol u m bi a/s c h o e n b or n- b- c- r e vi e w- b o ar d- 1. 6 3 7 1 8 8 6 51 L e B e a u, G. ( 2 0 2 0, S e pt e m b er 2 5). Sti g m a s urr o u n di n g N C R M D ? R o bs o n Cri m L e g al Bl o g . htt ps:// w w w.r o bs o n cri m. c o m/si n gl e -p ost/sti g m a -s urr o u n di n g-n cr m d -b y -g a vi n -l e b e a u M arti n, K. ( 2 0 1 7, A pril 6). M att h e w d e Gr o o d t ells his vi cti ms’ f a mili es h e k n o ws h e’s c a us e d t h e m “ u n c o ns ci o n a bl e ” p ai n. C al g ar y H er al d . htt ps:// c al g ar y h er al d. c o m/ n e ws/ cri m e/ m att h e w -d e - gr o o d-t ells- his-vi cti ms -f a mili es- h ek n o ws- h es -c a us e d -t h e m- u n c o ns ci o na bl e -p ai n M arti n, K. ( 2 0 1 8, O ct o b er 4). Kill er M att h e w d e Gr o o d t o b e m o v e d t o E d m o nt o n, m a y b e gr a nt e d li mit e d fr e e d o m . C al g ar y S u n . htt ps:// c al g ar ys u n. c o m/ n e ws/ cri m e/ q ui nt u pl e kill er -m att h e w - d e- gr o o d-gi v e n -gr e at er -pri vil e g es -i n cl u di n g-visits -t o-t h e-c o m m u nit y M att h e w d e Gr o o d: W h o is t h e C al g ar y st a b bi n g s us p e ct ? ( 2 0 1 4, A pril 1 5). T h e C a n a di a n Br o a d c asti n g C or p or ati o n. htt ps://li n k. g al e. c o m/ a p ps/ d o c/ A 3 6 5 0 0 9 0 9 0/ C PI ? u = mtr o y al c &si d = b o o k m ar kC PI & xi d = 1 9 2 d 2 3 c 9 M c C a b e, B. ( n. d.). M y fri e n d kill e d fi v e p e o pl e i n m y h o m e, b ut I w o n’t c all hi m a m o nst er. VI C E. htt ps:// w w w. vi c e. c o m/ e n/ arti cl e/ b m w d 8 w/ m y -fri e nd -kill e d -fi v e- p e o pl e-i n-m y h o m e- b ut-i- w o nt- c all - hi m- a- m o nst er M c L a c hli n, B. ( 2 0 1 0). M e di ci n e a n d t h e l a w: T h e c h all e n g es of m e nt al ill n ess. D al h o usi e L a w J o ur n al , 3 3 ( 2), 1 5- 3 3. htt ps:// di git al c o m m o ns.s c h uli c hl a w. d al. c a/ c gi/ vi e w c o nt e nt. c gi ? arti cl e = 1 9 6 2 & c o nt e xt = dlj M e nt al. ( n. d.). I n O xf or d E n glis h di cti o n ar y. ( n. d.). R etri e v e d 2 0 2 2. htt ps:// w w w -o e d c o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ vi e w/ E ntr y/ 1 1 6 5 3 7 ?r e dir e ct e d Fr o m = m e nt al + dis or d er # ei d 3 7 2 7 1 524 52 M e nt al H e alt h C o m missi o n of C a n a d a. ( 2 0 1 3, A pril 2 4). F a ct s h e et. A b o ut t h e n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e d u e t o a m e nt al dis or d er ( N C R M D) p o p ul ati o n i n C a n a d a. [ T a bl e] htt ps:// w w w. m e nt al h e alt h c o m missi o n. c a/ w p c o nt e nt/ u pl o a ds/ dr u p al/ M H L a w N C R M D F a ct S h e et FI N A L E N G 0. p df Mil a di n o vi c, Z. & L u k ass e n , J. ( 2 0 1 4, S e pt e m b er 1 8). V er di cts of n ot cri mi n all y r es p o nsi bl e o n a c c o u nt of m e nt al dis or d er i n a d ult cri mi n al c o urts, 2 0 0 5/ 2 0 0 6- 2 0 1 1/ 2 0 1 2 . St atisti cs C a n a d a. [ T a bl e] htt ps:// w w w 1 5 0.st at c a n. g c. c a/ n 1/ p u b/ 8 5- 0 0 2- x/ 2 0 1 4 0 0 1/ arti cl e/ 1 4 0 8 5e n g. ht m M o n c h ali n, L. ( 2 0 1 6). T h e c ol o ni al pr o bl e m. A n I n di g e n o us p ers p e cti v e o n cri m e a n d i nj usti c e i n C a n a d a. U ni v ersit y of T or o nt o Pr ess. M o o n e y, H. ( 2 0 1 9, M a y 3 1). D ar ci e Cl ar k e, e x - wif e of c hil d kill er All a n S c h o e n b or n, h as di e d. Ti m es C ol o nist. htt ps:// w w w.ti m es c ol o nist. c o m/ b c- n e ws/ d ar ci e -cl ar k e -e x -wif e - of-c hil d kill er -all a n -s c h o e n b or n-h as -di e d - 4 6 7 3 2 5 9 N ati o n al P ost. ( 2 0 1 2, M a y 2 2). Gr e y h o u n d b us b e h e a d er Vi n c e Li: ‘I d o n’t h e ar v oi c es’. Vi n c e Li s a ys h e r e m e m b ers w h at h a p p e n e d o n a Gr e y h o u n d b us b o u n d f or Wi n ni p e g d uri n g t h at mi ds u m m er’s ni g ht m ar e i n 2 0 0 8 w h e n h e b e h e a d e d Ti m M c L e a n. Wi n ni p e g Fr e e Pr ess. htt ps:// n ati o n al p ost. c o m/ n e ws/ gr e y h o u n d- b us- b e h e a d er -vi n c e -li-i- d o nt-h e ar -v oi c es N ot Cri mi n all y R es p o nsi bl e R ef or m A ct , S. C. 2 0 4, c 6 o p e n p arli m e nt. c a ( 2 0 1 3, J u n e 5). Ms. C ar ol d e D ell e y ( as a n i n di vi d u al) at t h e J usti c e a n d H u m a n R i g hts c o m mitt e e. htt ps:// o p e n p arli a m e nt. c a/ c o m mitt e es/j usti c e/ 4 1 - 1/ 7 6/ c ar ol- d ed ell e y - 1/ o nl y/ P a ul, G. & S c h e n c h - H a mli n. ( 2 0 1 7, J a n u ar y 1 3). B eli efs a b o ut vi cti m-off e n d er c o nf er e n c es: F a ct ors i nfl u e n ci n g vi cti m - off e n d er e n g a g e m e nt. C o nfli ct R es ol uti o n Q u art erl y , 3 5 ( 1), 53 4 7- 7 2. htt ps:// o nli n eli br ar y -wil e y c o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ d oi/ p df dir e ct/ 1 0. 1 0 0 2/ cr q. 2 1 1 9 0 P a uls, K. ( 2 0 1 5, M a y 8). Vi n c e Li O K’ d t o m o v e t o Wi n ni p e g gr o u p h o m e . C B C. htt ps:// w w w. c b c. c a/ n e ws/ c a n a d a/ m a nit o b a/ vi n c e- li- o k- d-t o- m o v e-t o- wi n ni p e g- gr o u ph o m e- 1. 3 0 6 4 9 5 0 Pil o n, M. ( 2 0 0 2, J a n u ar y 2 2). M e nt al dis or d er a n d C a n a di a n cri mi n al l a w. L a w a n d G o v er n m e nt Di visi o n . htt ps:// p u bli c ati o ns. g c. c a/ C oll e cti o n - R/ L o P B d P/ B P/ pr b 9 9 2 2- e. ht m R es p o nsi bl e. ( n. d.). I n O xf or d E n glis h di cti o n ar y. ( n. d.). R etri e v e d 2 0 2 2. htt ps:// w w w -o e d c o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ vi e w/ E ntr y/ 1 6 3 8 6 3 ?r e dir e ct e d Fr o m =r es p o nsi bl e # ei d Ri c h ar ds o n, C. & F ull ert o n, R. ( 2 0 1 6). C o v eri n g C a n a di a n cri m e. P art o n e, t h e r o uti n es a n d r e aliti es of C a n a di a n cri m e r e p orti n g. U ni v ersit y of T or o nt o Pr ess , 1 7- 2 2. htt ps:// w w w jst oror g.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/st a bl e/ 1 0. 3 1 3 8/j. ct v 1 0 0 5 b kf. 4 ?r efr e qi d = e x c elsi or % 3 A 1 8 b b b a 1 e 7 b 1 9 6 c 9 5 a 3 2 7 3 e 2 4 e 8 af b e c 0 &s e q = 1 # m et a d at a i nf o t a b c o nt e nts R o y Gr e e n ( H ost). ( 2 0 1 5, M a y 9). T h e R o y Gr e e n s h o w a u di o p o d c ast. [ A u di o p o d c ast e pis o d e]. S at M a y 9 – C ar ol D e D ell e y . R o y Gr e e n s h o w. htt ps:// o m n y.f m/s h o ws/r o y -gr e e n s h o w/s at-m a y - 9-c ar ol -d e -d ell e y R uss ell, A. ( 2 0 1 7, F e br u ar y 1 1). Ti m M c L e a n’s m ot h er c alls it ‘ dist ur bi n g’ Vi n c e Li gr a nt e d a bs ol ut e dis c h ar g e. Gl o b al N e ws . htt ps:// gl o b al n e ws. c a/ n e ws/ 3 2 4 3 8 3 2/ti m- m cl e a ns m ot h er- c alls -it- dist ur bi n g- vi n c e-li-gr a nt e d -dis c h ar g e/ R v d e Gr o o d , 2 0 2 1 A B C A 1 3 2 ( C a n LII) R v P i n et, 1 9 9 5 C a n LII 3 7 1 ( O N C A) R v S c h o e n b or n , 2 0 1 0 B C S C 2 2 0 54 R v S w ai n, 1 9 9 1, 1 S. C. R. 9 3 3 Si d h u, I. ( 2 0 2 0, S e pt e m b er 7). F a mili es of vi cti ms of C al g ar y m ass kill er M att h e w d e Gr o o d pr e p ar e f or a n n u al h e ari n g. C T V N e ws . htt ps:// c al g ar y. ct v n e ws. c a/f a mili es - of-vi cti ms -ofc al g ar y -m ass -kill er -m att h e w - d e- gr o o d-pr e p ar e -f or- a n n u al-h e ari n g - 1. 5 0 9 5 3 9 4 T h e C a n a di a n Pr ess . ( 2 0 2 0, S e pt e m b er 8). M att h e w d e Gr o o d, w h o kill e d fi v e p e o pl e at C al g ar y h o us e p art y i n 2 0 1 5, a p ol o gi z es at y e arl y r e vi e w. 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R e c e nt c o urt of a p p e als d e cisi o ns hi g hli g ht i m p ort a n c e of e vi d e n c e o n “si g nifi c a nt t hr e at ” t w o r e c e nt c as es s u g g est t h at t h e c o urt of a p p e al m a y b e a p pl yi n g t h e Wi n k o pri n ci pl es o n si g nifi c a nt t hr e at m or e ri g or o usl y t h a n it h as hist ori c all y . C a n LII C o n n e cts. htt ps:// c a nlii c o n n e cts. or g/ e n/ c o m m e nt ari es/ 5 4 6 9 8 W a k efi el d, J. ( 2 0 2 1, J u n e 3). T h e M att h e w d e Gr o o d c as e r es h a p e d Al b ert a’s m e nt al h e alt h r e vi e w b o ar d. W h y t h at h as s o m e p ati e nts a n d t h eir l a w y ers w orri e d. E d m o nt o n J o ur n al . 55 htt ps:// e d m o nt o nj o ur n al. c o m/ n e ws/l o c al- n e ws/f or- c o n vi cts- i n-al b ert a -m e nt al - h os pit als- ah ars h -f all o ut-fr o m-m att h e w - d e- gr o o d-c as e W e n z el, M., O ki m ot o, T., F e at h er, N., & Pl at o w, M. ( 2 0 0 8, O ct o b er 2 4). 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C a n a di a n cri mi n ol o g y . ( 3 e d.). O xf or d U ni v ersit y Pr ess. Wi nt er d y k, J. ( 2 0 2 1). C o m p ari n g a b ori gi n al a n d p ost- c ol o ni al r est or ati v e j usti c e: T h e c as e of C a n a d a. I n T. G a vri eli d es ( E d.), C o m p ar ati v e R est or ati v e J usti c e , 1 0 7- 1 2 9. S pri n g er. Y a m a m ot o, S., M a e d er, E., & F e n wi c k, K. ( 2 0 1 7). Cri mi n al r es p o nsi bilit y i n C a n a d a: M e nt al dis or d er sti g m a e d u c ati o n a n d t h e i ns a nit y d ef e n c e. I nt er n ati o n al J o ur n al of F or e nsi c M e nt al H e alt h , 1 6( 4), 3 1 3- 3 3 5. htt ps:// w w w -t a n dfo nli n ec o m.li b pr o x y. mtr o y al. c a/ d oi/ p df/ 1 0. 1 0 8 0/ 1 4 9 9 9 0 1 3. 2 0 1 7. 1 3 9 1 3 5 7 ? n e e d A c c ess =tr u e