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P S Y C H O P A T H Y A N D R E SI LI E N C Y I N Y O U T H C RI MI N A L O F F E N DI N G A C R O S S
T H E L I F E S P A N : A NE U R O BI O L O GI C A L O V E R VI E W

By
M a c k e n zi e Fr a m pt o n

U n d er t h e s u p er visi o n of
Dr. J a n n e H ol m gr e n

M o u nt R o y al U ni v ersit y

A n H o n o urs Pr oj e ct s u b mitt e d i n p arti al f ulfill m e nt of t h e D e gr e e r e q uir e m e nts f or t h e d e gr e e of
B a c h el or of Arts -Cri mi n al J usti c e ( H o n o urs)
M o u nt R o y al U ni v ersit y

D at e S u b mitt e d: A pril 1 1 t h, 2 0 2 4

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M R U T e r rit o ri al L a n d A c k n o wl e d g e m e nt
M o u nt R o y al U ni v ersit y is l o c at e d i n t h e tr a diti o n al t errit ori es of t h e Niitsit a pi ( Bl a c kf o ot) a n d
t h e p e o pl e of t h e Tr e at y 7 r e gi o n i n s o ut h er n Al b ert a, w hi c h i n cl u d es t h e Si ksi k a, t h e Pii k a ni, t h e
K ai n ai, t h e Ts u ut'i n a a n d t h e I y ar h e N a k o d a. W e ar e sit u at e d o n l a n d w h er e t h e B o w Ri v er m e ets
t h e El b o w Ri v er. T h e tr a diti o n al Bl a c kf o ot n a m e of t his pl a c e is " M o h ki nstsis, " w hi c h w e n o w
c all t h e cit y of C al g ar y. T h e cit y of C al g ar y is als o h o m e t o t h e M étis N ati o n.

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D e di c ati o ns a n d A c k n o wl e d g e m e nts
First a n d f or e m ost, I w a nt t o e xt e n d a si n c er e a n d h e artf elt t h a n k y o u t o m y s u p er vis or, Dr. J a n n e
H ol m gr e n w h o I c o nsi d er m ys elf v er y l u c k y a n d f ort u n at e t o h a v e b e e n a bl e t o w or k wit h. H er
u n w a v eri n g s u p p ort a n d g ui d a n c e a n d h er e x p eri e n c e i n n ot o nl y t his pr of essi o n a n d r es e ar c h,
b ut h er e x p eri e n c e i n t e a c hi n g m a d e f or e x c e pti o n al f e e d b a c k a n d e n c o ur a g e m e nt t hr o u g h o ut t his
r es e ar c h st u d y. I w o ul d als o li k e t o t h a n k m y pr of ess ors t h at I h a v e b e e n f ort u n at e e n o u g h t o
l e ar n fr o m t hr o u g h o ut m y y e ars i n t his pr o gr a m. T h eir l ess o ns a n d st ori es eli cit e d p assi o n a n d
e x cit e m e nt f or w h at is t o c o m e i n t h e p urist of a c ar e er i n t his li n e of w or k. I w a nt t o als o s a y
t h a n k y o u t o t h e st aff at t h e li br ar y w h o h a v e pr o vi d e d a gr e at a m o u nt of ti m e a n d eff ort i n
h el pi n g m e s h a p e m y w or k. A bi g t h a n k y o u t o m y p art n er f or al w a ys b eli e vi n g i n m e a n d m y
p assi o ns a n d f or y o ur e n c o ur a g e m e nt as w ell as y o ur p ati e n c e t hr o u g h o ut t h e d ur ati o n of m y
r es e ar c h st u d y. L ast b ut d efi nit el y n ot l e ast, t o m y p ar e nts a n d si bli n gs, w h o h a v e all o w e d m e t o
p urs u e s u c h a p assi o n wit h li mitl ess s u p p ort, c o n v ers ati o ns, a n d ti m e i n s h a pi n g m y r es e ar c h ,
t h a n k y o u.

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A bst r a ct
T his r es e ar c h st u d y t a k es t h e f or m of a lit er at ur e r e vi e w t h at pr o vi d es a f o u n d ati o n of c urr e nt
k n o wl e d g e of ps y c h o p at h y a n d r esili e n c y i n y o ut h off e n d ers. C hil d d e v el o p m e nt a n d t h e
i m p ort a n c e of s e nsiti v e p eri o ds a n d p ossi bl e lif e tr aj e ct ori es b as e d o n n e g ati v e or p ositi v e
infl u e n c es d uri n g d e v el o p m e nt ar e e x pl or e d. T h e i m pli c ati o ns of c hil d m altr e at m e nt o n a
n e ur o bi ol o gi c al l e v el is a f o c us t hr o u g h o ut t his p a p er t o h el p ai d i n t h e e x pl a n ati o n of
ps y c h o p at h y a n d its t e n d e n ci es r el ati n g t o cri m e. T h e a n al ysis of b r ai n ar c hit e ct ur e is dis c uss e d
wit h p ossi bl e r el ati o ns hi ps i n c o n n e cti o n t o ps y c h o p at h y or r esili e n c e, wit h t h e us e of e vi d e n c e
t hr o u g h br ai n i m a gi n g, i n r el ati o n t o c h a n g es t h at ar e o bs er v e d i n i n di vi d u als w h o e x p eri e n c e d
c hil d h o o d m altr e at m e nt. I n t er ms of f ut ur e r es e ar c h, t h e p ossi bilit y of d e v el o pi n g t ar g et e d
tr e at m e nt eff orts co ul d b e cr e at e d t o tr e at t h e r o ot c a us e of ps y c h o p at h y m or e pr e cis el y a n d
pr o m ot e r esili e n c y, s u c h as i d e ntif yi n g a b n or m al br ai n str u ct ur e a n d f u n cti o n. Fi n all y, t h e
i m pli c ati o ns of s u c h a st u d y ar e d e m o nstr at e d t o b e cr u ci al i n c o nti n ui n g eff orts t o r e d u c e
c hil d h o o d m altr e at m e nt b y r e c o g ni zi n g, u n d erst a n di n g, a n d e d u c ati n g t h e g e n er al p o p ul ati o n i n
its p ossi bl e d etri m e nt al lif es p a n c o ns e q u e n c es, wit h t h e ulti m at e g o al of r e d u ci n g cri m e a n d
h el pi n g t h os e w h o m a y n ot h a v e a v oi c e.

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T a bl e of C o nt e nts

P S Y C H O P A T H Y A N D R E SI LI E N C Y I N Y O U T H C RI MI N A L O F F E N DI N G A C R O S S T H E LI F E S P A N: A
N E U R O BI O L O GI C A L O V E R VI E W ............................................................................................................. 1
M R U T E R RI T O RI A L L A N D A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T ............................................................................... 2
D E DI C A TI O N S A N D A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S ......................................................................................... 3
A B S T R A C T .................................................................................................................................................... 4
T A B L E O F A B B R E VI A TI O N S ...................................................................................................................... 5
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S ................................................................................................................................ 6
I N T R O D U C TI O N .......................................................................................................................................... 8
M E T H O D S ................................................................................................................................................... 1 0
M E T H O D O L O G Y ....................................................................................................................................................... 1 0
LI MI T A TI O N S ............................................................................................................................................ 1 2
C HI L D D E V E L O P M E N T ............................................................................................................................ 1 2
I N F L U E N CI N G F A C T O R S ........................................................................................................................................... 1 3
S e nsiti v e P e ri o ds. .............................................................................................................................................. 1 3
St r ess a n d T o xi c St r ess. .................................................................................................................................... 1 4
S I B L I N G , T W I N , A N D O R P H A N S T U DI E S ................................................................................................................... 1 4
R E SI LI E N C E ............................................................................................................................................... 1 5
P S Y C H O P A T H Y ......................................................................................................................................... 1 9
C HI L D M A L T R E A T M E N T ......................................................................................................................... 2 0
S E X U A L A B U S E ........................................................................................................................................................ 2 2
E M O T I O N A L A B U S E ................................................................................................................................................. 2 2
S O CI O L O GI C A L F A C T O R S ......................................................................................................................................... 2 3
N E U R O BI O L O GI C A L I M P LI C A TI O N S .................................................................................................... 2 5
A F F E C T E D B R A I N A R C H I T E C T U R E .......................................................................................................................... 2 8
A m y g d al a ........................................................................................................................................................... 2 8
Hi p p o c a m p us. ................................................................................................................................................... 2 8
C o r p us C all os u m. ............................................................................................................................................. 2 9
P r ef r o nt al C o rt e x. ............................................................................................................................................. 3 0
H y p ot h al a mi c -Pit uit a r y -A d r e n al A xis. .......................................................................................................... 3 0
G E N E T I C S A N D N E U R O L O GI C A L G R O W T H ............................................................................................................... 3 1
G E N E R A L I M P L I C A T I O N S O F N E U R O BI O L O G Y I N C HI L D H O O D M A L T R E A T M E N T .................................................... 3 3
C O N N E C TI O N T O C RI M E ......................................................................................................................... 3 4
R E L A T I O N S HI P T O T Y P E S A N D S E V E R I T Y O F C RI M E ............................................................................................... 3 7
DI S C U S SI O N ............................................................................................................................................... 3 8
P R E V E N T I O N , T R E A T M E N T , A N D P O L I C Y C H A N G E S ................................................................................................ 3 8
I M P L I C A T I O N S F O R F U T U R E R E S E A R C H ................................................................................................................. 3 9

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R E F E R E N C E S ............................................................................................................................................. 4 3

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I nt r o d u cti o n
N e ur o bi ol o gi c al, m e a ni n g t h e c o m bi n ati o n a n d i nfl u e n c e of t h e n e ur ol o g y a n d bi ol o g y
t h at m a k es u p a n i n di vi d u al ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7), u n d er pi n ni n gs of o n e’s g e n eti c m a k e u p
c o ul d h a v e a gr e at er i m pli c ati o n i n t h e r ol e of cri m e t h a n pr e vi o us r es e ar c h h as i m pli e d.
Alt h o u g h it is w ell -k n o w n t h at t h er e is n e v er j ust o n e e x pl a n ati o n f or cri m e, t h e n e ur o bi ol o gi c al
c o n c e pt of a n i n di vi d u al m a y pl a y a bi g g er r ol e i n t h e a cti o n of a cri mi n al e v e nt t h a n ori gi n all y
t h o u g ht. T h er ef or e, s e v er al diff er e nt t h e ori es will b e dis c uss e d t o a c c o u nt f or t h e f a ct t h at t h er e is
n o “ o n e -si z e-fits-all ” m o d el ( R o e c k n er et al., 2 0 2 1). S o m e n e ur o bi ol o gi c al e x pr essi o ns h a v e
d e m o nstr at e d t h e i m pr essi o n a bl e n at ur e of o n e’s g e n eti c m ar k ers d uri n g t h eir cr u ci al y e ars of
d e v el o p m e nt, t h at is, w hil e t h e y ar e a c hil d ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T h er e is
t h e p ossi bilit y t h at a d v ers e c hil d h o o d e x p eri e n c es ( A C Es) t h at h a p p e n e d b ef or e a n i n di vi d u al
r e a c h es a d ult h o o d c o ul d h a v e a c orr el ati o n a n d a r ol e t o pl a y i n t h e e v e nt u al o ut c o m e of cri m i n al
b e h a vi o ur . T his is n ot t o s a y t h at e v er y c hil d w h o is a b us e d, n e gl e ct e d or h as a n u nst a bl e
u p bri n gi n g, is g oi n g t o b e c o m e a c ar e er cri mi n al ( Z h a n g et al., 2 0 2 3). H er ei n li es t h e n a g gi n g
q u esti o n of w h y s o m e i n di vi d u als b e c o m e i n v ol v e d i n cri m e a n d w h y ot h ers d o n’t.
R e c e nt r es e ar c h h as u n c o v er e d a p ossi bl e a ns w er t o t h e af or e m e nti o n e d q u esti o n;
r esili e n c e. Alt h o u g h still a br o a d c o nsi d er ati o n a n d “ v er y littl e is k n o w n a b o ut t h e e x a ct
m e c h a nis ms b y w hi c h p ositi v e , s o ci all y s u p p orti v e e n vir o n m e nts g ets u n d er t h e s ki n t o pr o m ot e
r esili e n c e ” ( B o w es & J aff e e, 2 0 1 3, p. 2 0 3) , it h as all o w e d s o m e cri mi n ol o gists t o a c c o u nt f or t h e
r e as o ns of w h y cri m e o c c urs f or i n di vi d u als of A C Es. S o m e c urr e nt r es e ar c h s u g g ests t h at t h er e
ar e pr ot e cti v e f a ct ors or e v e n g e n eti c pr e dis p ositi o n s t h at e n c o ur a g e a c hil d t o w ar ds a p ositi v e
lif e tr aj e ct or y as o p p os e d t o a n e g ati v e o n e ( E at o n et al., 2 0 2 2).

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T his st u d y will ai m t o pr o vi d e a c o m pr e h e nsi v e o v er vi e w of c urr e nt r es e ar c h i n t h e
n e ur o bi ol o gi c al e x pr essi o ns t h at m a y pr o vi d e a c hil d wit h a s e ns e of c o m mitti n g a cri m e. It will
als o e x a mi n e t h e li mit ati o ns i n r es e ar c h s o as t o dir e ct a n y p ossi bl e f ut ur e r es e ar c h wit h t h e g o al
of p oli c y c h a n g e a n d i nt er v e nti o n t o e n c o ur a g e a p ositi v e lif e tr aj e ct or y f or c hil dr e n d es pit e a n y
alr e a d y a c c u m ul at e d A C Es.
T h e q u esti o n t h at t his r es e ar c h st u d y will ai m t o a ns w er is, c a n a li n k b et w e e n a d ult
off e n d ers w h o h a v e e x p eri e n c e d A C Es b e c o n n e ct e d t hr o u g h a n a n al ysis of t h eir n e ur o bi ol o gi c a l
e x pr essi o ns ? T h e g o al of t his st u d y is t o pr o vi d e r e a d ers wit h t h e c urr e nt , a n d f ut ur e r es e ar c h t h at
ai ms t o u n d erst a n d h o w k n o wl e d g e a b o ut t h e n e ur o bi ol o gi c al m a k e u p of a n i n di vi d u al c a n
i nfl u e n c e t h e a cti o n of cri m e.
T his st u d y ai ms t o cr e at e a v er y br o a d u n d erst a n di n g of t h e n e ur o bi ol o gi c al f a ct ors t h at
pl a y a r ol e i n t h e a cti o n of cri m e, as w ell as t h e p ossi bilit y of r esili e n c e wit hi n a n i n di vi d u al.
W h e n dis c ussi n g r esili e n c e, t his st u d y will h o p ef ull y pr o vi d e a ns w er s as t o h o w s o m e
i n di vi d u als h a v e t h e r esili e n c e t o st a y a w a y fr o m cri m e, h o w r esili e n c e is g e n er at e d wit hi n a n
i n di vi d u al, as w ell as s o m e cr u ci al st a g es i n lif e a n d d e v el o p m e nt t o e n c o ur a g e or dis c o ur a g e
r esili e n c e.
C urr e nt r es e ar c h is st arti n g t o s hi n e a s p otli g ht o n t h e i m p ort a n c e i n a c k n o wl e d gi n g t h e
r ol e t h at a c hil d’s A C Es a n d its n e ur o bi ol o gi c al i nfl u e n c es h as o n a n a cti o n of cri m e ( C o o k e et
al., 2 0 2 3) . T h er ef or e, t his r es e ar c h st u d y will m ai nl y f o c use o n t h e c hil d’s n e ur o bi ol o g y a n d its
i nfl u e n c es, t h e c o n n e cti o n t o cri m e t h at n e ur o bi ol o gi c al i nfl u e n c es h a v e, a n d a n y f ut ur e
i m pli c ati o ns of t his r es e ar c h w hi c h i n cl u d e i d e as f or p oli c y c h a n g e as w ell as pr e v e nti o n,
i nt er v e nti o n, a n d tr e at m e nt m et h o ds.

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M et h o ds
T his st u d y will t a k e t h e f or m of t h e r es e ar c h d esi g n of a n e x pl or at or y r es e ar c h st u d y.
T h at is, t his st u d y will d e m o nstr at e t h e c uri osit y a n d e a g er n ess t o e x pl or e all t h e p ossi bl e
r el ati o ns t o t h e r es e ar c h t o pi c as w ell as t h e r es e ar c h q u esti o n. T hr o u g h o ut t h e st u d y, t h er e will
b e a s e ns e of s e e ki n g a d e e p er u n d erst a n di n g t o t h e a ns w ers t h at m a y l e a d t o m or e q u esti o ns i n
or d er t o cr e at e a f ull s e ns e of i m m ersi o n i nt o t h e r es e ar c h t o pi c. T his st u d y c a n a ct as t h e b as e of
f ut ur e r es e ar c h d u e t o its p ot e nti al of d e pt h of e x pl or ati o n t o all p ossi bl e e n ds a n d r el ati o ns t o t h e
r es e ar c h t o pi c.
D u e t o t h e e x pl or at or y f o c us of t his st u d y, t h e r es e ar c h m et h o d will b e hi g hl y q u alit ati v e
as o p p os e d t o q u a ntit ati v e. T h e ori es t h at will b e a n al y z e d c o nsist of s o ci ol o gi c al, ps y c h ol o gi c al,
a n d cri mi n ol o gi c al, a n d n e ur o bi ol o gi c al as p e cts will als o b e dis c uss e d wit h s u p pl e m e nt al
e vi d e n c e t hr o u g h br ai n i m a gi n g us e d b y t h e lit er at ur e b ei n g r e vi e w e d t o e ns ur e pr o p er
k n o wl e d g e o n t h e r es e ar c h t o pi c .

M et h o d ol o g y
Si n c e t his st u d y is a lit er at ur e r e vi e w, t h e pri m ar y d at a c oll e cti o n is s e c o n d ar y. T h e
d at a b as es us e d c o nsist e d of G o o gl e S c h ol ar, P u b M e d, Ps y c I nf o, R es e ar c h G at e, a n d S aj e
J o ur n als. All d at a c oll e ct e d m ust b e a p pr o xi m at el y p u blis h e d wit hi n t h e l ast t e n y e ars, t h er ef or e,
t h e y e ars of p u bli c ati o n r a n g e w as s et t o 2 0 1 3-2 0 2 4 . K e y w or ds us e d d uri n g t h e c oll e cti o n of
d at a c o nsist e d of “ c hil d ”, “ c hil dr e n ”, “ y o ut h ”, “ a b us e ”, “ n e gl e ct ”, “ m altr e at m e nt ”, “ cri m e ”,
off e n d ers ”, “ n e ur ol o gi c al ”, “ bi ol o gi c al ”, “ n e ur o b i ol o g y ”, “ br ai n ”, “r esili e n c e ”, “ d e v el o p m e nt ”
“ ps y c h o p at h y ” a n d “r esili e nt ”.

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T h e d at a a n al ysis w as a c o m bi n ati o n of n ot es f or e a c h t h e m e a n d hi g hli g hti n g wit h c ol o ur
c o di n g f or m ai n t h e m es a n d c o n c e pts . T h e c ol o urs us e d t o hi g hli g ht c orr es p o n ds wit h pr o p os e d
h e a di n gs or m ai n i d e as t h at ar e a d dr ess e d t hr o u g h o ut t h e p a p er. D u e t o t h e fl e xi bl e n at ur e of
t e c h n ol o g y, all arti cl es us e d i n t h e st u d y w er e r e a d, hi g hli g ht e d, m ar k e d, a n d n ot es w er e t a k e n o n
t h e la pt o p or i P a d as o p p os e d t o p a p er. T h e r ati o n al e f or usi n g t h es e m et h o ds f or d at a a n al ysis is
t o vis u all y u n d erst a n d t h e o v erl a ps a nd a m o u nt of fi n di n gs d e ali n g wit h t h e cr u ci al i nfl u e n c es
t h at i m p a ct n e ur o bi ol o g y of a n i n di vi d u al.
H e a di n gs a n d m ai n i d e as c o nsist e d of c hil d d e v el o p m e nt, c hil d m altr e at m e nt,
s o ci ol o gi c al f a ct ors, ps y c h ol o gi c al f a ct ors, n e ur o bi ol o gi c al i m pli c ati o ns, r esili e n c e, ps y c h o p at h y,
c o n n e cti o n t o cri m e, a n d dis c ussi o n. T h e m ai n i d e a of c hil d d e v el o p m e nt w as c ol o ur c o d e d t o
bl u e a n d i n cl u d es i d e as s u c h as i nfl u e n ci n g f a ct ors, s e nsiti v e p eri o ds, a n d t wi n st u di es. T h e m ai n
i d e a of c hil d m altr e at m e nt, c ol o ur c o d e d t o p ur pl e a n d pi n k , i n cl u d es p h ysi c al, s e x u al, e m oti o n al,
a n d ps y c h ol o gi c al a b us e a n d n e gl e ct , a n d s o ciol o gi c al f a ct or w hi c h i n cl u d es f a mil y a n d fri e n ds
a n d t h e i m p a ct o n t h e n e ur o bi ol o g y of a n i n di vi d u al. T h e m ai n i d e a of ps y c h ol o gi c al f a ct ors,
c ol o ur c o d e d t o or a n g e, i n cl u d es ps y c h ol o gi c al dis or d ers a n d t h e i m p a ct o n t h e n e ur o bi ol o g y of
a n i n di vi d u al. T h e m ai n i d e a of n e ur o bi ol o gi c al i m pli c ati o ns, c ol o ur c o d e d t o gr e e n, i n cl u d es
br ai n s c a ns a n d t al ks a b o ut t h e r e gi o ns of t h e br ai n. T h e m ai n i d e a of t h e c o n n e cti o n t o cri m e,
c ol o ur c o d e d t o y ell o w, i n cl u d es t h e t y p e of cri m e. Fi n all y, t h e m ai n i d e a of dis c ussi o ns, c ol o ur
c o d e d t o r e d, i n cl u d es p oli c y c h a n g e, pr e v e nti o n a n d tr e at m e nt, a n d i m pli c ati o ns f or f ut ur e
r es e ar c h. R e d will als o b e us e d t o hi g hli g ht dis c ussi o ns a n d i m pli c ati o n of r esili e n c e a n d
ps y c h o p at h y t o all of t h e a b o v e h e a di n gs a n d t h e m es.

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Li mit ati o ns
D u e t o t h e si g nifi c a nt i nt er dis ci pli n ar y n at ur e of t his t o pi c, is it diffi c ult t o e ns ur e
a d e q u at e c o v er a g e of all c o n c e pts a n d f a ct ors i n v ol v e d. T his st u d y will o nl y b e a bl e t o pr o vi d e a
p orti o n of i nf or m ati o n t h at is a v ail a bl e , t h er ef or e it s h o ul d b e n ot e d t h at e v er y as p e ct of t his
st u d y c a n b e c o nti n u e d o n f urt h er i n f ut ur e r es e ar c h. E a c h c o n c e pt s h o ul d b e e x p a n d e d u p o n
w h e n c o nsi d eri n g c o n d u cti n g r es e ar c h i n t his ar e a. T h er e is als o li mit e d r es e ar c h t h us f ar as t o
w h at ki n ds of m altr e at m e nt m a y aff e ct t h e l a c k of r e sili e n c e m or e t h a n ot h er f a ct ors, or w h at
ki n ds of pr ot e cti v e f a ct ors c o ul d l e a d t o a c hil d b ei n g m or e r esili e nt i n t h e f ut ur e. T h e s a m e c a n
b e s ai d a b o ut t h e c o n c e pt of ps y c h o p at h y, es p e ci all y i n c hil dr e n. S p e cifi c all y, n e ur oi m a gi n g
st u di es ar e still li mit e d, a n d e a c h o n e diff ers i n its f o c us ( F e d er et al., 2 0 1 9). L o n git u di n al
st u di es, as will b e dis c uss e d, w hi c h all o w s f or r es e ar c h ers t o u n d erst a n d t h e eff e cts of c hil d
m altr e at m e nt a cr oss t h e lif es p a n. H o w e v er, d u e t o t h e n at ur e of t h es e st u di es, it cl e arl y t a k es
ti m e w hi c h m a k es t h e m limit e d i n n u m b er at t his m o m e nt ( F e d er et al., 2 0 1 9).
F or t his st u d y i n p arti c ul ar, t h e ti m e c o nstr ai nts h a v e cr e at e d li mit ati o ns i n w h at c a n b e
a c hi e v e d. T his g o es f or b ot h t h e r es e ar c h as p e ct of c oll e cti n g d at a, as w ell as f or t h e writi n g
p orti o n, a n d f or t h e p ossi bl e diss e mi n ati o n of t his pr oj e ct as w ell. Fi n all y, t his r es e ar c h st u d y
r e pr es e nts t his i nf or m ati o n as a n o v er vi e w of t h e lit er at ur e o nl y. T h er ef or e, t his p a p er c o nsists
stri ctl y of s e c o n d ar y r es e ar c h d at a.

C hil d D e v el o p m e nt
“ A n y a cts, or s eri es of a cts, b y a p ar e nt or c ar e gi v er t h at r es ults i n t h e ( p ot e nti al f or)
h ar m, or t hr e at of h ar m, t o a c hil d ” is d efi n e d as c hil d m altr e at m e nt ( C M) ( I o a n ni dis et al., 2 0 2 0,
p. 1, p ar a. 1). C ar e gi v er -c hil d i nt er a cti o ns str e n gt h e n b a b y’s n e ur o n al p at h w a ys r e g ar di n g s o ci al

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i nt er a cti o ns a n d h o w t o g et t h eir p h ysi c al a n d e m oti o n al n e e ds m et (C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n
G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3) . W h e n c hil dr e n a n d y o ut h li v e i n a c h a oti c or t hr e at e ni n g w orl d, t h eir br ai ns
m a y b e c o m e h y p er al ert f or d a n g er a n d n ot f ull y d e v el o p , t h er ef or e ass o ci at e d C M wit h al c o h ol
a b us e, i m p uls e c o ntr ol pr o bl e ms, s ui ci d al b e h a vi o urs, i nt er p ers o n al diffi c ulti es, i n cr e as e d p e er
r ej e cti o n, s o ci al wit h dr a w al, a g gr essi o n a n d cri mi n alit y, p h ysi c al h e alt h diffi c ulti es, c o g niti v e
pr o bl e ms, a n d m e nt al h e alt h dis or d ers (C hil d W elf ar e I nf o rm ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3 ; I o a n ni dis et
al., 2 0 2 0 ).

I nfl u e n ci n g f a ct ors
S e nsiti v e P e ri o ds . S e nsiti v e p eri o ds ar e t h e wi n d o ws of ti m e i n t h e d e v el o p m e nt pr o c ess
w h e n c ert ai n p arts of t h e br ai n m a y b e m ost s us c e pti bl e t o p arti c ul ar e x p eri e n c es ( C hil d W elf ar e
I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). If c ert ai n s y n a ps es a n d n e ur o n al p at h w a ys ar e n ot a cti v at e d
r e p e at e dl y d uri n g a p arti c ul ar ti m e p eri o d, t h e y m a y b e di mi nis h e d or dis c ar d e d ( C hil d W elf ar e
I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). R es e ar c h h as s h o w n t h at c hil d h o o d is a n i m p ort a nt p eri o d i n
s etti n g t h e f o u n d ati o n t o lif e tr aj e ct ori es a n d lif e -l o n g d e v el o p m e nt ( S attl er et al., 2 0 2 3). T h e
c hil d h o o d a n d a d ol es c e nt p eri o ds ar e c h ar a ct eri z e d t hr o u g h dr a m ati c c h a n g es i n br ai n str u ct ur e
a n d f u n cti o n t h at c a us e a n i n cr e as e t h e pl asti cit y of o n e’s n e ur o bi ol o gi c al f u n cti o ns, w hi c h
d e m o nstr at es a n o pti m al wi n d o w f or t h e n e ur o bi ol o gi c al d e v el o p m e nt of r esili e n c e ( Z h a n g et al. ,
2 0 2 3), or ps y c h o p at h y. T h e i m p ort a n c e of u n d erst a n di n g t h e l e v el of v ul n er a bilit y as a c hil d a n d
y o u n g a d ult s p e a k t o t h e f a ct t h at alt h o u g h t h e c h a n g es wit n ess e d i n t h e n e ur o bi ol o g y of a c hil d
w h o h as e x p eri e n c e C M a n d/ or A C Es is n ot e d t o b e mi ni m al, d a m a g e c a us e d i n c hil d h o o d d o
a m o u nt d e v ast ati n g b e h a vi o ur al a n d h e alt h o ut c o m es o v er o n e’s lif es p a n ( C o o k e et al., 2 0 2 3).
C hil dr e n fr o m t h e R o m a ni a n i nstit uti o ns w h o h a d b e e n s e v er el y n e gl e ct e d , t e n d e d t o h a v e a

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m u c h b ett er att a c h m e nt r es p o ns e if t h e y w er e pl a c e d i n f ost er c ar e, r e c ei vi n g m or e st a bl e
p ar e nti n g, b ef or e t h e y w er e 2 4 m o nt hs ol d t h a n t h os e w h o w er e n ot ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n
G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T his i n di c at es a s e nsiti v e p eri o d f or att a c h m e nt.
St r ess a n d T o xi c St r ess . P ositi v e str ess, t ol er a bl e str ess, a n d t o xi c str ess ar e t hr e e t y p es
of str ess r es p o ns es o utli n e d b y T h e C e nt er o n t h e D e v el o pi n g C hil d ( H ar v ar d U ni v ersit y 2 0 2 3 b;
C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). A t o xi c str ess r es p o ns e is a m aj or , fr e q u e nt a n d/or
pr ol o n g e d str ess, s u c h as p h ysi c al or e m oti o n al a b us e, c hr o ni c n e gl e ct, c ar e gi v er s u bst a n c e a b us e
or m e nt al ill n ess, e x p os ur e t o vi ol e n c e, or a c c u m ul at e d b ur d e ns of f a mil y e c o n o mi c h ar ds hi ps
wit h o ut a d e q u at e a d ult s u p p ort ( H ar v ar d U ni v ersit y 2 0 2 3 b; C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y,
2 0 2 3). T o xi c str ess is t h e ki n d of str ess t h at c a n disr u pt t h e d e v el o p m e nt of br ai n ar c hit e ct ur e a n d
i n cr e as e t h e ris k of dis e as e a n d c o g niti v e i m p air m e nt s or c a us e d el e v at e d p er c e pti o n of f e ar a n d
a q u i c k s hift t o a d ef e nsi v e m o d e w h e n f a c e d wit h str ess ors ( H ar v ar d U ni v ersit y 2 0 2 3 b; C hil d
W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3).

Si bli n g, T wi n , a n d Or p h a n St u di es
T wi n a n d si bli n g r es e ar c h d esi g ns h a v e pr o vi d e d s u p p ort i n t h at e x p eri e n ci n g C M a n d/ or
A C Es ar e s h o w n t o b e attri b ut a bl e i n n e g ati v e h e alt h o ut c o m es, a n d h a v e h el p e d t o s e p ar at e
ot h er i nfl u e n c es at pl a y i n t h e d e v el o p m e nt of b e h a vi o ur al pr o bl e ms t hr o u g h o n e’s d e v el o p m e nt
a n d lif e ( C o o k e et al., 2 0 2 3). L o n git u di n al st u di es h a v e pr o v e d t o b e a p o w erf ul t o ol f or
i d e ntif yi n g n e ur al str u ct ur e a n d f u n cti o n t h at i nfl u e n c e a n d c o ntri b ut e t o r esili e n c e a n d it's
d e v el o p m e nt ( R o e c k n er, et al., 2 0 2 1). Or p h a n st u di e s pr o vi d e i nsi g ht i nt o t h e c o ns e q u e n c es of
p h ysi c al a n d e m oti o n al n e gl e ct d uri n g c hil d h o o d ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). O n e st u d y of
si g nific a nt i m p ort a n c e r el at e d t o s u c h r es e ar c h is t h at of th e B u c h ar est E arl y I nt er v e nti o n Pr oj e ct

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w hi c h i n cl u d e d t h e s o m e of t h e w ell -k n o w n r es e ar c h fi n di n gs fr o m t h e R o m a ni a n Or p h a n a g es,
w h er e or p h a ns w er e assi g n e d t o eit h er a n e wl y est a blis h e d s yst e m of hi g h -l e v el f ost er ca r e
v ers us c o nti n u e d i nstit uti o n al c ar e, t hr o u g h w hi c h st u di es pr o vi d e d d at a o n t h e i m p a ct a n d
r e v ersi bilit y of e arl y n e gl e ct o n br ai n d e v el o p m e nt ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6).
S o m e st u di es i n v ol vi n g t wi ns h a v e s h o w n a str o n g h erit a bl e f a ct or of disr u pti v e
b e h a vi o urs a c c o m p a ni e d b y hi g h l e v els of c all o us -u n e m oti o n al ( C U ) tr aits w h er e as disr u pti v e
b e h a vi o urs a c c o m p a ni e d b y l o w l e v els of C U tr aits a p p e ar e d t o b e m or e str o n gl y li n k e d t o
e n vir o n m e nt al f a ct ors ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7). T h es e t wi n st u di es h a v e als o o bs er v e d str o n g
g e n eti c i nfl u e n c e i n C U/ ps y c h o p at hi c tr aits ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7). T hr o u g h t h e r es e ar c h
a n d fi n di n gs of a n ati o n al S w e dis h t wi n s a m pl e, t h e r es e ar c h ers a n d a ut h ors esti m at e d t h at t h e
h erit a bilit y of all cri mi n al c o n vi cti o ns ar e a b o ut 4 5 %, w hi c h ar e si mil ar t h e t h at of t h e esti m at es
f or t h e h erit a bilit y s h o w n i n st u di es of a ntis o ci al p ers o n alit y dis or d er ( A S P D) a n d its ass o ci at e d
b e h a vi o ur s ( K e n dl er et al., 2 0 1 5).
I n t h e c o nt e xt of r esili e n c e, t wi n st u di es h a v e als o b e e n i m pli c at e d. T hr o u g h a
l o n git u di n al st u d y of 7 5 0 0 a d ult t wi ns w h o m o d el e d r esili e n c e a n d b as e d o n a n u m b er of
e x p eri e n c e d lif e str ess ors, it s h o w e d t h at r esili e n c e h as a m o d er at e h erit a bilit y a n d w as e q u all y
i nfl u e n c e d b y b ot h g e n eti c a n d e n vir o n m e nt al st u di e s ( F e d er et al., 2 0 1 9).

R esili e n c e
I n i n t h e c o nt e xt of t his c urr e nt st u d y, a si g nifi c a nt pr o p orti o n of i n di vi d u als w h o h a v e
e x p eri e n c e d C M f u n cti o n b ett er t h a n e x p e ct e d w h e n c o m p ar e d t o ot h ers w h o e x p eri e n c e d C M
(I o a n ni dis, et al., 2 0 2 0). M or es o, w h e n m altr e at m e nt d o es alt er t h e c hil d’s br ai n str u ct ur e or
a cti vit y, s o m e c hil dr e n d o n ot pr es e nt a n y ps y c h o p at h ol o gi es ( m e nt al dis or d ers or f u n cti o n al

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i m p air m e nts) or h a v e o ut c o m es t h at ar e m u c h b ett er t h a n e x p e ct e d c o nsi d eri n g t h e cir c u mst a n c es
t h e y h a v e e n d ur e d ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). S o m e c o h ort st u di es t h at l o o k at
s y m pt o ms a n d t h eir l e v els of P T S D r a n gi n g fr o m h o urs t o y e ars of p o st-tr a u m a s h o w t h at m a n y
i n di vi d u als e x p eri e n c e hi g h l e v els of d e pr essi o n, a n xi et y, a n d ot h er r el at e d s y m pt o ms of P T S D
i n t h e first d a ys aft er a tr a u m ati c e v e nt, b ut t h at t h e m aj orit y r e c o v er n at ur all y ( R o e c k n er, et al.,
2 0 2 1). T his t y p e of o ut c o m e is c all e d r esili e n c y, t h e a bilit y t o a d a pt t o a d v ersit y ( C hil d W elf ar e
I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3; I o a n ni dis, et al., 2 0 2 0). I m p ort a nt t o n ot e is t h at r esili e n c e is t h e
m ost c o m m o n r es p o ns e t o a tr a u m ati c e v e nt, a c c or di n g t o R o e c k n er et al., ( 2 0 2 0), as o nl y a s m al l
gr o u p of i n di vi d u als w h o e x p eri e n c e s u c h tr a u m ati c e v e nts t o o n t o m ai nt ai n p ersist e nt i m p airi n g
s y m pt o ms. T h e si g nifi c a n c e of r esili e n c e i n t h e c o nt e xt of c hil d m altr e at m e nt is t h at i n di vi d u als
w h o h a v e hi g h er tr ait r esili e n c e t e n d t o e x hi bit c o nstri cti v e c o pi n g a biliti es w hi c h c o ntri b ut e
hi g hl y t o r e c o v er y ( W att ers et al., 2 0 2 3)
R esili e n c e is i n h er e ntl y d y n a mi c i n t h at t h e tr aj e ct ori es a n d pr e di ct ors of r esili e nt
f u n cti o ni n g m a y c h a n g e o v er ti m e (I o a n ni dis, et al., 2 0 2 0), a n d c a n b e d efi n e d as t h e s et of
c o m pl e x a n d d y n a mi c pr o c ess es t h at all o w i n di vi d u als t o m ai n t ai n ps y c h ol o gi c al w ell -b ei n g,
r e b o u n d, m ai nt ai n st a bl e e q uili bri u m, or p ositi v el y a d a pt fr o m disr u pti v e lif e c h all e n g es i n t h e
f a c e of a d v ersit y ( R o e c k n er et al., 2 0 2 1; W att ers et al., 2 0 2 3 ). T h e A m eri c a n Ps y c h ol o gi c al
Ass o ci ati o n d efi n es r esili e n c e as “t h e pr o c ess of a d a pti n g w ell i n t h e f a c e of a d v ersit y, tr a u m a,
tr a g e d y, t hr e ats, or si g nifi c a nt s o ur c es of str ess s u c h as f a mil y a n d r el ati o ns hi p pr o bl e ms, s eri o us
h e alt h pr o bl e ms or w or k pl a c e a n d fi n a n ci al str ess ors. It m e a ns “ b o u n ci n g b a c k ” fr o m diffi c ult
e x p eri e n c es ” ( D e Wit et al., 2 0 1 6, p. 5 4 3). O n a r el at e d n ot e, a d efi niti o n of tr a u m a, pr o p os e d b y
t h e 2 0 0 8 Pr esi d e nti al T as k F or c e o n P osttr a u m ati c Str ess Dis or d er a n d Tr a u m a i n C hil dr e n a n d
A d ol es c e nts, st at es a tr a u m ati c e v e nt b ei n g as “ o n e t h at t hr e at e ns i nj ur y, d e a t h, or t h e p h ysi c al

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i nt e grit y of s elf or ot h ers a n d als o c a us es h orr or, t err or, or h el pl ess n ess at t h e ti m e it o c c urs ”,
c o nti n ui n g o n t h e y, st at e t h at tr a u m ati c e v e nts “i n cl u d e s e x u al a b us e, p h ysi c al a b us e, d o m esti c
vi ol e n c e, c o m m u nit y a n d s c h o ol vi ol e n c e, m e di c al tr a u m a, m ot or v e hi cl e a c ci d e nts, a cts of
t err oris m, w ar e x p eri e n c es, n at ur al a n d h u m a n m a d e dis ast ers, s ui ci d e, a n d ot h er tr a u m ati c
e v e nts ” ( K ell e y et al., 2 0 1 4, p. 1 4 3). Tr a u m a c a n als o b e d efi n e d, as m e eti n g t h e crit eri a of t h e
D S M -5 as tr a u m a - or str ess -r el at e d dis or d ers, s u c h t h at p arti ci p a nts e x p eri e n c e d, wit n ess, or
w er e c o nfr o nt e d wit h t h e t hr e at of d e at h or s eri o us i nj ur y or t hr e at t o p ers o n al i nt e grit y
( R o e c k n er, et al., 2 0 2 1), a n d t his e x p a n ds t o c o nsi d er ot h er m aj or lif e e v e nt str ess ors s u c h as
d e at h of f a m il y m e m b ers, j o b l oss, or m e di c al ill n ess.
R esili e n c e is oft e n vi e w e d b ei n g o n a c o nti n u u m wit h r esili e n c y a n d v ul n er a bilit y o n
o p p osi n g e n ds ( F e d er et al., 2 0 1 9; R o g ers et al., 2 0 1 3). R e c e nt st u di es h a v e st art e d t o r e c o g ni z e
t h at r esili e n c e oft e n pr es e nts its elf i n o n e of t w o w a ys, r esili e n c e as a tr ait or r esili e n c e as a
pr o c ess. R esili e n c e as a tr ait is u n d erst o o d as c h ar a ct eristi cs of a n i n di vi d u al w h er e as r esili e n c e
as a pr o c ess is u n d erst o o d as a n i n di vi d u al a c q uiri n g w h at is s o m eti m es k n o w n as t h e tri a d of
tr aits ( R o g ers et al., 2 0 1 3). T his tri a d of r esili e nt tr ait s e n c o m p ass es p ers o n al c h ar a ct eristi cs s u c h
as a n e as y t e m p er a m e nt, h a vi n g a s u p p orti v e f a mil y, a n d h a vi n g ot h er e xt er nal p ositi v e r ol e
m o d els, h o w e v er, a n ot h er v ersi o n of t his h as b e e n pr o p os e d w hi c h c o nsists of i n di vi d u al -l e v el
f a ct ors, t h at e xists i n t h e s o ci al-l e v el f a ct ors, w hi c h t o g et h er e xist wit hi n t h e s o ci et al-l e v el
f a ct ors ( R o g ers et al., 2 0 1 3; J or g e ns e n, 2 0 1 9). A n ot h er st u d y c o nsi d ers a t hir d w a y t h at r esili e n c e
pr es e nts its elf, w hi c h is r esili e n c e as a n o ut c o m e w hi c h d e m o nstr at es t h e p ositi v e a d a pt ati o n
d es pit e a d v ersit y e x p os ur e ( E at o n et al., 2 0 2 2).
O n e as p e ct of r esili e n c e, w hi c h bri n gs t o li g ht its p u z zli n g n at ur e, is b e c a us e r esili e n c e is
si m pl y n ot t h e a bs e n c e of a ps y c hi atri c dis or d er, it is i m p ort a nt t o n ot e n e ur al pr e di ct ors

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( R o e c k n er, et al., 2 0 2 1). M a n y st u di es a n d r es e ar c h ers vi e w r esili e n c y t hr o u g h t h e l e ns of a
m ultis yst e m of d e v el o p m e nt, a n d t h er ef or e t h er e ar e s e v er al a p pr o a c h es t o r esili e n c y ( M ast e n et
al., 2 0 2 1). S o m e of t h es e a p pr o a c h es i n cl u d e st ati n g t h at r esili e n c e c h a n g es o v er ti m e as a r es ult
of m ulti pl e pr o c ess es a n d d e v el o p m e nt, r esili e n c e c a p a cit y is distri b ut e d a cr oss m ulti pl e s yst e ms
b ot h i nt er n al a n d e xt er n al t o t h e c hil d, r esili e n c e c a n m a nif est i n m ulti pl e p ossi bl e p at h w a ys o v er
ti m e, a n d i nt er v e nti o ns t o n urt ur e or b olst er r esili e n c e c a n t ar g et diff er e nt pr o c ess es wit hi n l e v els
or li n ki n g s yst e m l e v els ( M ast e n et al., 2 0 2 1).
M a n y m e as ur es of pr o m oti n g r esili e n c e i n cl u d e f o c u si n g o n t h e attri b ut es of t h e c hil d’s
f a mil y, t h e c hil d t h e ms el v es, as w ell as ot h er e xt er n al s u p p ort, w hi c h i n cl u d e g o o d -q u alit y
p ar e nti n g, w ar m r el ati o ns hi ps, f a mil y c o h esi o n, c o g niti v e s kills, o pti mis m, fri e n ds, r eli gi o us
affili ati o ns, a n d eff e cti v e s c h o ols a n d t e a c h ers ( M ast e n et al., 2 0 2 1). D at a h as d e m o nstr at e d t h at
a p pr o xi m at el y 5 0 % of i n di vi d u als wit h a hist or y of C M s h o w c as e r esili e nt ps y c h ol o gi c al
f u n cti o ni n g i n c hil d h o o d a n d a d ol es c e n c e ( H asl a m & T a yl or, 2 0 2 2). T his bri n gs t o li g ht t h e
mi n ds et t o h a v e a b o ut t h e p ositi v e o ut c o m es of i n di vi d u als wit h c o m pl e x c hil d h o o ds, as w ell as a
p ositi v e n u d g e i n t h at it c o ul d b e p ossi bl e t o g ai n a n u n d erst a n di n g as t o w h y s o m e i n di vi d u als
ar e a bl e t o d e m o nstr at e r esili e n c e a n d n ot ot h ers, wit h t h e h o p es of m a ki n g r esili e n c e a n
att ai n a bl e g o al f or e v er y o n e i n s u c h a sit u ati o n.
As it wil l b e dis c uss e d, j ust li k e h o w ps y c h o p at h y h a s h y p ot h esi z e d m o d els of its
d e v el o p m e nt, s o d o es r esili e n c e. S p e cifi c all y, o n e st u d y s u g g est e d t h e bi o ps y c h os o ci al m o d el of
r esili e n c e ( F e d er et al., 2 0 1 9). T h e m o d el st at es t h at t h e g e n es i nt er a ct wit h e n vir o n m e nt al
i nfl u e n c es t h at s h a p e t h e f u n cti o n of t h e n e ur al cir c uit a n d ass o ci at e d s yst e ms, t h e n t h es e
e n vir o n m e nt al i nfl u e n c es cr e at e a l asti n g i m p a ct o n n e ur al a n d str ess s yst e ms t hr o u g h e pi g e n eti c
m o difi c ati o n, t h e n at t h e n e ur al l e v el, t h er e is t h e a cti v ati o n of t h e br ai n r e gi o ns t h at pri m aril y

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r es p o nsi bl e f or m e di at i n g t hr e at r es p o ns es, e m oti o n r e g ul ati o n, as w ell as str ess r es p o ns es t o t h e
c h a n gi n g e n vir o n m e nt t o s u p p ort a c c ur at e att e nti o n of t h e e v e nt a n d f a cilit at e a d a pti v e c o pi n g
m e c h a nis ms ( F e d er et al., 2 0 1 9). T h e C e nt er o n t h e D e v el o pi n g C hil d at H ar v ar d U ni v ersit y h as
pr o vi d e d a w a y t o vis u ali z e h o w r esili e n c y is d e v el o p e d. I n vis u ali zi n g a s e es a w or a t e et er t ott er, pr ot e cti v e f a ct ors sit o n o n e si d e w hil e o n t h e ot h er si d e sits si g nifi c a nt a d v ersit y.
T h er ef or e , w e c a n cl e arl y s e e t h at t h e c hil d h as b ot h p ositi v e a n d n e g ati v e f a ct ors t h e y h a v e
e x p eri e n c e d . T h e n, t h e s e es a w’s f ul cr u m m a n a g es t h e w ei g ht l o a d of b ot h si d es b ut s h o ws
r esili e n c y w h e n t h e p ositi v e f a ct ors c a n l e a n i n f a v o ur of t h e pr ot e cti v e f a ct ors or all o w f or a
b al a n c e s o as t o n ot c o m pl et el y c o m pr o mis e a n d hi d e a w a y t h e pr ot e cti v e f a ct ors, w hi c h i n t ur n
h el ps i n t h e pr o m oti o n a n d d e v el o p m e nt of r esili e n c y ( H ar v ar d U ni v ersit y, 2 0 2 3c ).

Ps y c h o p at h y
Alt h o u g h t h er e is n o s p e cifi c di a g n osti c c at e g or y of ps y c h o p at h y, it is a p ers o n alit y
dis or d er t h at is oft e n c h ar a ct eri z e d b y l a c k of e m p at h y a n d g uilt, s h all o w aff e ct, m a ni p ul ati o n of
ot h er p e o pl e, a n d s o m eti m es s e v er e a n d vi ol e nt, a nti s o ci al b e h a vi o ur ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7).
A cl os el y r el at e d a n d si mil ar dis or d er t h at is r e c o g ni z e d b y t h e D S M -5 a n d c o nsists of s p e cifi c
crit eri a is a ntis o ci al p ers o n alit y dis or d er w hi c h i n cl u d es a g gr essi o n, i m p ulsi vit y, a n d vi ol ati o n of
t h e ri g hts of ot h ers ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7).
R es e ar c h ers a n d cli ni ci a ns u n d erst a n d t h at f e at ur es a ss o ci at e d wit h ps y c h o p at h y a n d/ or
A S P D ar e n ot fi x e d d uri n g c hil d h o o d, b ut t h at b ei n g s ai d, c urr e nt r es e ar c h h as st art e d t o s h o w
e vi d e n c e t h at ps y c h o p at hi c f e at ur es ar e pr e di cti v e of i n cr e as e d ris k f or p ersist e nt a ntis o ci al
b e h a vi o ur a n d a d ult ps y c h o p at hi c pr es e nt ati o n ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7). Ps y c h o p at h y its elf is
r e p ort e d t o b e i nfr e q u e nt wit hi n t h e g e n er al p o p ul ati o n at a b o ut 1 %-2 %, b ut wit hi n t h e

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p o p ul ati o n of cri mi n al off e n d ers , a b o ut 1 5 %-2 5 % m e et t h e crit eri a of ps y c h o p at h y, of w hi c h its
c h ar a ct eristi cs j ust m e nti o n e d , t e n d t o b e o n e of t h e str o n g est pr e di ct ors of c hr o ni c a n d vi ol e nt
off e n di n g ( M or eir a et al., 2 0 2 0).

C hil d M alt r e at m e nt
C hil d h o o d m altr e at m e nt is t h e m ost i m p ort a nt ris k f a ct or f or ps y c h o p at h ol o g y (T ei c h er et
al., 2 0 2 0) , as w ell as g e n er al h o us e h ol d d ysf u n cti o n b ei n g a m aj or ris k f a ct or f or
ps y c h o p at h ol o g y t o o ( O h as hi et a., 2 0 1 9) . M altr e at m e nt c a n aff e ct b ot h t h e str u ct ur e a n d
c h e mi c al a cti vit y of a c hil d’s br ai n a s w ell as t h eir e m oti o n al a n d b e h a vi o ur al f u n cti o ni n g ( C hil d
W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T h e s p e cifi c eff e cts of m altr e at m e nt m a y d e p e n d o n
f a ct ors s u c h as t h e a g e of t h e c hil d at t h e ti m e of t h e m altr e at m e nt, if t h e m altr e at m e nt w as a o n e ti m e i n ci d e nt or c hr o ni c, a n d t h e i d e ntit y of t h e i n di vi d u al w h o e n g a g e d i n t h e m altr e at m e nt
( H ar v ar d U ni v ersit y 2 0 2 3 b; C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T h os e w h o h a v e
e x p eri e n c e d C M s h o w a hi g h er pr e v al e n c e of d e pr es si o n, a n xi et y, s u bst a n c e a b us e, e ati n g
dis or d ers, s ui ci d al s y m pt o m at ol o g y, ps y c h osis, p ers o n alit y dis or d er, di mi nis h e d c o g niti v e
f u n cti o ni n g, a n d p o or er tr e at m e nt r es p o ns e (T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). O n e st u d y f o u n d t h at
c hil dr e n w h o w er e c hr o ni c all y m altr e at e d s h o w e d gr e at er e x e c uti v e f u n cti o n d efi ci e n ci es a n d
i m p a cts t o n et w or k v ul n er a bilit y t h a n c hil dr e n w h o w er e n ot m altr e at e d or t h os e wit h l ess
c hr o ni c m altr e at m e nt ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3; T ei c h er et al., 2 0 2 0). T h e
eff e cts of t h e m altr e at m e nt o n t h e c hil d’s br ai n ar e vi e w e d as ps y c h o p at h ol o g y a n d t h es e
alt er ati o ns i n d e v el o p m e nt m a y b e vi e w e d as a d a pt ati o ns f or i m m e di at e s ur vi v al ( C hil d W elf ar e
I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T h e h ars h e n vir o n m e nt t h at t h e c hil d a d a pts t o m a y n ot b e t h e s a m e
e n vir o n m e nt t h e y fi n d t h e ms el v es i n l at er i n lif e, a n d t h er ef or e, t h e a d a pt ati o ns t h at o n c e all o w e d

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t h e c hil d t o s ur vi v e i n a t o xi c a n d str ess -pr ol o n g e d e n vir o n m e nt m a y c a us e b e h a vi o urs t h at ar e
i n a p pr o pri at e t o a h e alt h y e n vir o n m e nt ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3).
S o m e st u di es h a v e b e e n a bl e t o pr o vi d e r es ults t h at s h o w s oli d e vi d e n c e f or s p e cifi c
tr a u m a s u bt y p es b ei n g ass o ci at e d wit h s p e cifi c c h a n g es i n o n e’s n e ur o bi ol o g y. F or e x a m pl e a n d
t o b e e x p a n d e d o n i n t h e n e xt s e cti o ns, s e x u al a b us e w as ass o ci at e d wit h d efi cits wit hi n t h e
r e w ar d cir c uit as w ell as s h o wi n g a m y g d al ar h y p err e a cti vit y, w hil e e m oti o n al m altr e at m e nt w as
ass o ci at e d wit h wi d es pr e a d a b n or m aliti es i n fr o nt o -li m bi c a cti vit y a n d c o n n e cti vit y es p e ci all y i n
t h e n et w or ks i n v ol v e d i n e m oti o n al pr o c essi n g, a n d n e gl e ct w as als o ass o ci at e d wit h wi d es pr e a d
d efi cits i n t h e i nt e grit y of w hit e m att er a n d c o n n e cti vit y i n v ol v e d i n a n arr a y of f u n cti o ns
( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8). T hr o u g h t h e a n al ysis of n u m er o us st u di es, p h ysi c al a b us e a n d n e gl e ct
h a v e s h o w n t o b e a hit -or -miss i n eit h er h a vi n g o b vi o us a b n or m aliti es i n br ai n str u ct ur e a n d
f u n cti o n, or s o m e st u di es o n t h e ot h er h a d h a v e st at e d “ n o a p p ar e nt str u ct ur al or f u n cti o n al
eff e cts w er e f o u n d ” ( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8, p. 1 4).
I n r e c e nt y e ars of r es e ar c h, t h er e h a v e b e e n m or e c all s t o u n d erst a n d t h e diff er e n c es, if
a n y, i n t h e n e ur o bi ol o g y b asis of t h e eff e cts of c hil d m altr e at m e nt a n d its s u bs e q u e nt eff e cts o n
r esili e n c e a n d ps y c h o p at h y b et w e e n m al es a n d f e m al es. It is u n d erst o o d t h at m a n y f or ms of
ps y c h o p at h ol o g y ar e oft e n m or e pr e v al e nt i n o n e s e x o v er t h e ot h er, s u c h as m or e e xt er n ali zi n g
dis or d ers, f or e x a m pl e A D H D, e x p eri e n c e d b y m al es a n d m or e i nt er n ali zi n g dis or d ers, f or
e x a m pl e a n xi et y dis or d ers, e x p eri e n c e d b y f e m al es ( C or n w ell et al, 2 0 2 3). W h at is n ot as w ellk n o w n or u n d erst o o d is t h e r ol e t h es e i m pli c ati o ns pl a y i n r el ati o n t o r esili e n cy or ps y c h o p at h y,
if a n y.

P h ysi c al A b us e & N e gl e ct

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P ar e nt al n e gl e ct i n cl u d es p h ysi c al n e gl e ct t h at c o nsists of f aili n g t o pr o vi d e f or t h e
c hil d’s b asi c n e e ds, s u c h as f o o d, cl ot hi n g, p h ysi c al s af et y, a d e q u at e s u p er visi o n, m e di c al a n d
d e nt al h e alt h ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). S o m e c as es of p h ysi c al a b us e c a n c a us e i m m e di at e
str u ct ur al d a m a g e t o a c hil d br ai n s u c h as a b usi v e h e a d tr a u m a w hi c h c a n i n cl u d es s h a ki n g t h at
c a n l e a d t o br ai n s w elli n g a n d bl e e di n g ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). P h ysi c al
a b us e pr e di ct e d c h ar a ct eristi cs of e xt er n ali zi n g a n d a g gr essi v e b e h a vi o ur w h er e as p h ysi c al
n e gl e ct w as m or e s o ass o ci at e d wit h i nt er n ali zi n g a n d wit h dr a w n b e h a vi o ur ( C assi ers et al.,
2 0 1 8).

S e x u al A b us e
S e x u al a b us e c a n b e d efi n e d as “t o u c hi n g o n e’s br e a sts or g e nit ali a, f or c e d t o u c hi n g of
a n ot h er ’s g e nit al ar e a, v a gi n al or a n al p e n etr ati o n ” (J or g e ns o n, 2 0 1 9, p. 9). B ot h p h ysi c al a b us e
a n d n e gl e ct a n d s e x u al a b us e h a v e b e e n ass o ci at e d wit h r e d u c e d e x e c uti v e f u n cti o ni n g, w or ki n g
m e m or y, r e d u c e d c o g niti v e f u n cti o ni n g i n h e alt h y a d ults, a n d i nt elli g e n c e s c or es wit hi n a
ps y c hi atri c p o p ul ati o n ( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8).

E m oti o n al A b us e
K e y as p e cts of e m oti o n al m altr e at m e nt i n cl u d e v er b al a b us e, m a ni p ul ati o n, d e ni gr ati n g
or d estr o yi n g t hi n gs of v al u e t o t h e c hil d, or pl a ci n g t h e c hil d i n sit u ati o ns t h at ar e h ar mf ul
( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). P ar e nts w h o d e m o nstr at e t o b e e m oti o n all y n e gl e ctf ul m a y b e
e m oti o n all y u nr es p o nsi v e t o a c hil d’s di str ess, f ail t o att e n d t h e c hil d’s s o ci al n e e ds, or e x p e ct
t h e c hil d t o r o uti n el y m a n a g e sit u ati o ns t h at ar e k n o w n t o b e b e y o n d t h e c hil d’s m at urit y l e v el or
ar e d e e m e d t o n ot b e s af e ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). T h e o bs er v ati o ns of t h e eff e cts of s e x u al

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a b us e ar e n ot o bs er v a bl e wit hi n p o p ul ati o ns w h o e x p eri e n c e d e m oti o n al a b us e a n d n e gl e ct
( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8). S ur prisi n gl y, e m oti o n al m altr e at m e nt s h ar e d s o m e si mil ariti es wit h t h at of
p h ysi c al a b us e, w hi c h b ot h w er e pr e di cti v e of a g gr essi v e b e h a vi o ur ( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8).
F urt h er m or e, e m oti o n al tr a u m a w as m or e r eli a bl e i n pr e di cti n g t h e l at er d e v el o p m e nt of
d e pr essi v e s y m pt o ms t h a n p h ysi c al or s e x u al a b us e w as ( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8). E m oti o n al a b us e
w as t h e o nl y tr a u m a s u bt y p e t h at w as n ot ass o ci at e d wit h s elf -i nj ur y ( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8).

S o ci ol o gi c al F a ct ors
U nf ort u n at el y, p ar e nts wit h g e n eti c ris k f a ct ors r el at e d t o ps y c h o p at h y a n d/ or a ntis o ci al
b e h a vi o ur ar e m or e li k el y t o dis pl a y p ar e nti n g st yl es r el at e d t o h ars h p ar e nti n g v ers us a w ar m
p ar e nti n g st yl e ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7). A k e y f e at ur e of r e c ei vi n g a p pr o pri at e sti m uli is
d e v el o pi n g a s e c ur e att a c h m e nt wit h a c ar e gi v er . Att a c h m e nt is t h e e m oti o n al b o n d b et w e e n
p e o pl e, s u c h as a c hil d a n d t h eir c ar e gi v er ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). W h e n
t h e att a c h m e nt is s e c ur e, t h e c hil d k n o ws t h at t h e c ar e gi v er will c ar e f or a n d s u p p ort t h e m,
all o wi n g t h e c hil d t o e x pl or e t h eir e n vir o n m e nt s af el y a n d i n a c o nfi d e nt m a n n er ( C hil d W elf ar e
I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T his t y p e of s e c ur e att a c h m e nt pr o m ot es h e alt h y br ai n
d e v el o p m e nt, s o ci al a n d e m oti o n al d e v el o p m e nt, a n d s elf -r e g ul ati o n ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n
G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T h e o p p osit e c a n b e s ai d f or c hil dr e n w h o d o n ot d e v el o p s e c ur e att a c h m e nts
b e c a us e t h eir c ar e gi v ers ar e t hr e at e ni n g, or err ati c , a n d t h er ef or e t h e c hil d m a y e x p eri e n c e
s u b o pti m al d e v el o p m e nt or pr o gr ess ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). R es e ar c h h as
c o nsist e ntl y s h o w n t h at h a vi n g at l e ast o n e st a bl e a n d r es p o nsi v e s u p p orti v e a d ult i n a c hil d’s lif e
is a k e y f a ct or f or t h e d e v el o p m e nt a n d pr es e nt ati o n of r esili e n c y ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n

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G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). F a mil y s u p p ort i n a d ol es c e n c e as w ell as p e er s u p p ort is ass o ci at e d wit h
r e d u c e d d e pr essi v e s y m pt o ms a n d pr o m ot es r esili e nt f u n cti o ni n g (I o a n ni dis, et al., 2 0 2 0).
O v er all, c hil dr e n aff e ct e d wit h m altr e at m e nt c o m p ar e d t o c hil dr e n n ot e x p eri e n ci n g
m altr e at m e nt, a n d t h os e wit h disr u pti v e b e h a vi o urs a n d c all o us-u n e m o ti o n al tr aits ar e l ess li k el y
t o att e n d t o, r e a ct t o, a n d r e c o g ni z e aff e cti v e sti m uli, i n cl u di n g distr ess c u es s u c h as f e arf ul a n d
s a d e x p eri e n c es of ot h ers, ar e m or e li k el y t o s h o w bl u nt e d e m p at h y, ar e l ess li k el y t o dir e ct
att e nti o n t o t h e e y es of att a c h m e nt fi g ur es, a n d d o n’t a d a pt w ell t o c h a n g e r e g ar di n g sit u ati o ns
wit h r e w ar d -p u nis h m e nt c o nti n g e n ci es ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7).
T h e d e v el o p m e nt al tr aj e ct or y of a c hil d is k n o w n t o b e d et er mi n e d b y a n i nt er pl a y of
g e n eti c pr e dis p ositi o ns a n d f a ct ors t h at i nfl u e n c e h o w t h os e g e n eti c dis p ositi o ns ar e e x pr ess e d,
a n d t h es e g e n eti c dis p ositi o ns i nfl u e n c e h o w w e as i n di vi d u als i nt er a ct w it h o ur e n vir o n m e nt,
k n o w n as g e n e -e n vir o n m e nt c orr el ati o n ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7). O n e st u d y d e m o nstr at e d t h e
i nt er pl a y a n d i nfl u e n c e of n e ur o bi ol o g y a n d s o ci ol o gi c al f a ct ors as o n e p arti c ul ar g e n eti c
c o m p o n e nt r el at e d t o t h e h or m o n e of s er ot o ni n , w hi c h w as f o u n d t o b e r el at e d t o l o w a m y g d al a
r e a cti vit y w hi c h w as s h o w n o nl y as a ris k g e n ot y p e f or hi g h l e v els of C U tr aits i n l o w er
s o ci o e c o n o mi c st at us ( S E S) b a c k gr o u n d ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7 ; Gr e e n et al., 2 0 2 3). T his
fi n di n g is criti c al i n t h at it s u g g ests t h e d e gr e e of g e n eti c v ul n er a bilit y is e x pr ess e d d e p e n d e nt o n
t h e d e gr e e t o w hi c h a c hil d is e x p os e d t o e n vir o n m e nt al dis a d v a nt a g e ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y,
2 0 1 7).
Alt h o u g h it is r e c o g ni z e d t h at c hil d m altr e at m e nt c a n o c c ur at all l e v els of S E S, hi g h er
l e v els of C M o c c ur i n t h e l o w er l e v els as it oft e n ass o ci at e d wit h m or e vi ol e n c e, o v er cr o w di n g,
a n d li mit e d c o m m u nit y r es o ur c es w hi c h all o ws t o m or e o p p ort u niti es f or c hil dr e n t o e n g a g e i n
vi ol e n c e a n d s u bst a n c e us e w hi c h t h e n all o ws f or hi g h er r at es of ps y c h o p at h ol o g y ( Gr e e n et al.,

25
2 0 2 3). Hi g h er l e v els of fi n a n ci al s uffi ci e n c y d uri n g c hil d h o o d m a y h a v e a ct e d as a pr ot e cti v e
f a ct or i n at-ris k p arti ci p a nts ( T ei c h er et al., 2 0 2 0).

N e u r o bi ol o gi c al I m pli c ati o ns
W h e n a n i n di vi d u al is e x p os e d t o A C Es, t his t y p e of str ess tri g g ers a “ n e ur o i nfl a m m at or y r es p o ns e t h at alt ers n e ur o-i m m u n e d e v el o p m e nt w hi c h u n d erli es s o m e ps y c hi atri c
ill n ess es ” ( K e n n y, 2 0 1 6, p. 2 4). O n e st u d y pr o p os e d a m o d el t h at s u g g est e d t h at tr a u m ati c
e x p eri e n c es o v er w h el m t h e e x e c uti v e f u n cti o ni n g of t h e br ai n, w hi c h i n t ur n, c a us es i m p air m e nts
i n t h o u g ht pr o c ess es, b e h a vi o urs, a n d e m oti o ns ( M ar si gli o et al., 2 0 1 4). A c c or di n g t o t his t h e or y,
if this st at e of p h ysi ol o gi c al, as w ell as ps y c h ol o gi c al, distr ess is dr a g g e d o n f or a p eri o d of ti m e,
t h e c hil d e x p eri e n c es a d e cr e as e d a bilit y t o r e g ul at e e m oti o ns a n d t h er ef or e l e ar ns f e w er c o pi n g
str at e gi es ( M arsi gli o et al., 2 0 1 4). If t h es e str ess s y m pt o ms ar e i g n or e d b y t h e c hil d’s s o ci al
n et w or k, t h e y o ut h t a k es o n vi cti m c o pi n g, w hi c h is a “ p er c ei v e d j ustifi c ati o n t o t a k e a n y m e a ns
n e c ess ar y t o a v oi d r e vi cti mi z ati o n ” ( M arsi gli o et al., 2 0 1 4, p. 2). I n c o n cl usi o n of t his m o d el ,
vi cti m c o pi n g pr es e nts as m a n y of t h e c h ar a ct eristi cs o bs er v e d i n ps y c h o p at h y s u c h as t h e l oss of
e m p at h y, l a c k of i m p uls e c o ntr ol, a n d t h e o v er all i n cr e as e d t e n d e n c y t o w ar ds d eli n q u e nt
b e h a vi o ur ( M arsi gli o et al., 2 0 1 4).
R e c e nt a d v a n c es i n r es e ar c h as w ell as t e c h n ol o g y h as all o w e d f or t h e us e of f u n cti o n al
m a g n eti c r es o n a n c e i m a gi n g (f M RI) i n st u di es of c hil dr e n e x hi biti n g disr u pti v e b e h a vi o urs a n d
C U tr aits ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7). T h a n ks t o t h es e st u di es, t h e i m pli c ati o n of r e d u c e d a cti vit y
a n d alt er e d c o n n e cti vit y i n i n di vi d u als wit h b e h a vi o ur iss u es a n d hi g h l e v el of C U tr aits i n a
n et w or k of t h e br ai n r e gi o ns h a v e s h o w n t o b e ass o ci at e d wit h e m p at h y i n t h os e c o nsi d er e d t o b e
h e alt h y i n di vi d u als ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7) c o m p ar e d t o i n di vi d u als wit h C U tr aits. A n y

26
A C Es t h at a c hil d a c c u m ul at es h as pr of o u n d eff e cts o n t h e f u n cti o ni n g a n d d e v el o p m e nt of t h eir
br ai n. S u c h br ai n cir c uits t h at ar e i m p a ct e d b y A C Es i n cl u d e t h e a m y g d al a w hi c h m e di at es t h e
f e ar a n d pl e as ur es r es p o ns es, t h e h y p ot h al a mi c-pit uit ar y -a dr e n al ( H P A) a xis w hi c h r e g ul at es
str ess, t h e pr efr o nt al c ort e x w hi c h r e g ul at es m o o d a n d e m oti o n al a n d c o g niti v e r es p o ns es
( K e n n y, 2 0 1 6, p. 2 4).
A n ot h er disr u pti o n t o t h e n e ur ol o gi c al f u n cti o ni n g of c hil dr e n, a n d e v e nt u al a d ults, is t h at
of tr a u m ati c br ai n i nj uri es ( T BI). I n a st u d y c o n d u ct e d i n 2 0 1 5 ( H u g h es et al., 2 0 1 5, p. 9 4) it w as
st at e d t h at c hil d h o o d T BIs h as b e e n ass o ci at e d i n a n u m b er of n e ur o c o g niti v e i m p air m e nts a n d
d e v el o p m e nt al diffi c ulti es t h at i n t ur n, i m p a ct as p e ct s of f u n cti o ni n g a n d b e h a vi o ur s u c h as
d efi cits i n s o ci o -c o g niti v e s kills, s o ci al or pr a g m ati c c o m m u ni c ati o n, i m p uls e c o ntr ol a n d
r e g ul ati o n of a g gr essi v e r es p o ns es t o tr e at, c o g niti v e e m p at h y, a n d t h er ef or e t h e a bilit y t o h a v e
a p pr o pri at e r es p o ns es t o ot h er’s e m oti o ns is als o hi g hl y i m p air e d ( H u g h es et al., 2 0 1 5). T h e
s a m e st u d y g o es o n t o st at e t h at i m p air m e nts d u e t o T BIs i n c hil d h o o d h a v e b e e n i d e ntifi e d as
ris k f a ct ors t h at i n cr e as e t h e ris k of cri mi n alit y ( H u g h es et al., 2 0 1 5, p. 9 5). S o m e r es e ar c h h as
esti m at e d t h at o v er 6 0 % of a d ult pris o n ers h a v e e x p eri e n c e d a h e a d i nj ur y a c c o m p a ni e d wit h t h e
l oss of c o ns ci o us n ess ( Ni c h ol as et al., 2 0 1 5) a n d t h e s a m e r es e ar c h h as s h o w n r e p orts of b et w e e n
3 2 % a n d 4 6 % of y o ut h off e n d ers i n c ust o d y t h at h a v e e x p eri e n c e d a h e a d i nj ur y , als o
a c c o m p a ni e d b y l oss of c o ns ci o us n ess. S a dl y, d efi cit s i n e m p at h y, i m pl yi n g a r e d u cti o n or a n
i n a bilit y t o e m p at hi z e wit h ot h ers, is n ot e d as a c o m m o n s e q u e n c e of p e di atri c T BI ( Ni c h ol as et
al., 2 0 1 5).
T h er ef or e, t his s e cti o n pr o vi d es ar g u m e nt f or m or e r es e ar c h t o b e d o n e i n t his ar e a.
I nsi g ht i nt o s u c h br ai n cir c uits t h at c a n b e aff e ct e d b y A C Es or p ot e nti al b e h a vi o urs t h at c o ul d b e
t h e c a us e of T BIs c o ul d all o w f or pr e v e nt ati v e m e as ur es t o b e p ut i n pla c e o n c e a c hil d is k n o w n

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t o h a v e a c c u m ul at e d a n y A C Es or T BIs. C urr e nt r es e ar c h is b e c o mi n g m or e f o c us e d o n
u n d erst a n di n g t h e p ossi bilit y of s p e cifi c tr a u m a s u bt y p es l e a di n g t o s p e cifi c str u ct ur al a n d
f u n cti o n al br ai n alt er ati o ns, w hi c h is s p e c ul at e d , c o ul d u n d erli e t h e diff er e nti al c o g niti v e b e h a vi o ur al eff e cts ass o ci at e d wit h ps y c h o p at h ol o g y a n d r esili e n c y ( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8).
F et al al c o h ol s p e ctr u m dis or d er ( F A S D) is a n ot h er di s or d er t h at c o nsists of a r a n g e of
b e h a vi o ur al, p h ysi c al a n d c o g niti v e d efi cits t h at is t h e c o ns e q u e n c e of pr e n at al al c o h ol e x p os ur e
( R o g ers et al., 2 0 1 3). U nf ort u n at el y, t his dis or d er c o m es wit h a n u m b er of dis a biliti es ass o ci at e d
wit h d efi cits as t h e r es ult fr o m C N S i nj ur y d u e t o t h e pr e n at al al c o h ol e x p os ur e t h at c o nsists of
e x e c uti v e f u n cti o ni n g i m p air m e nts i n cl u d i n g d efi cits i n m e m or y a n d d e cisi o n m a ki n g a n d
pl a n ni n g, p o or j u d g e m e nt, e n g a g e i n l yi n g a n d st e ali n g, as w ell as h a vi n g littl e r e m ors e f or
c o ns e q u e n c es f or t h eir a cti o ns ( R o g ers et al., 2 0 1 3). O n e st u d y i d e ntifi e d a d v ers e o ut c o m es t h at
ar e c o m m o n i n i n di vi d u als li vi n g wit h F A S D , w hi c h i n cl u d e d 5 0 % r e p orti n g e x p eri e n c es of
c o nfi n e m e nt i n eit h er i n -p ati e nt tr e at m e nt f a ciliti es or b ei n g i n c ar c er at e d f or cri mi n al b e h a vi o urs
( R o g ers et al., 2 0 1 3). T his st atisti c s p e a ks t o f a ct t h at F A S D is b e c o mi n g i n cr e asi n gl y n oti c e d
wit h t h e j usti c e s yst e m, a n d as s u c h, is a p o p ul ati o n t h at is b e c o mi n g o v err e pr es e nt e d wit h 6 0 %
of t h os e wit h F A S D h a vi n g s o m e s ort of c o nt a ct wit h t h e j usti c e s yst e m ( R o g ers et al., 2 0 1 3).
F urt h er m or e, of t h at 6 0 %, t h e y o ut h r e m a n d e d t o f or e nsi c ps y c hi atri c f a ciliti es f or i n p ati e nt
ass ess m e nts a c c o u nt e d f or 2 3. 3 % ( R o g ers et al., 2 0 1 3).
As a fi n al n ot e a n d as a si m plifi e d s u m m ar y of t h e n e ur o bi ol o gi c al i m pli c ati o ns j ust
dis c uss e d t o e ns ur e a dir e ct u n d erst a n di n g t h e r es e ar c h t h us f ar, ps y c h o p at h y a n d a ntis o ci al
p ers o n alit y dis or d er ar e n e ur o d e v el o p m e nt al dis or d ers i nfl u e n c e d b y g e n eti c a n d e n vir o n m e nt al
f a ct ors (K oll a et al., 2 0 1 3).

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Aff e ct e d Br ai n Ar c hit e ct ur e
U nf ort u n at el y, t h er e ar e a n u m b er of ar c hit e ct ur al c h a n g es t o t h e gr oss n e ur o a n at o m y as
w ell as t h e p h ysi ol o g y a n d f u n cti o ni n g of t h e br ai ns of i n di vi d u als, eit h er c hil dr e n a n d/ or a d ults,
w h o h a v e e x p eri e n c e d m altr e at m e nt w hil e d e v el o pi n g , a n d c hil d h o o d a b us e s p e cifi c all y f o u n d t o
b e ass o ci at e d wit h alt er ati o ns i n br ai n str u ct ur e a n d f u n cti o n ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). Ar e as of
s p e cifi c i nt er est t o t his fi el d of w or k a n d r es e ar c h c o nsist s of r e gi o ns i n v ol v e d i n t hr e at i n hi biti o n
a n d r e gi o ns i n v ol v e d i n t hr e at r es p o ns e ( R o e c k n er, et al., 2 0 2 1) a n d cir c uits r el at e d t o e m oti o n
r e g ul ati o n.
A m y g d al a . T h e a m y g d al a, a k e y str u ct ur e wit hi n t h e li m bi c s yst e m t h at is i n v ol v e d i n
e n c o di n g of i m pli cit e m oti o n al m e m ori es ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6) a n d als o h el ps t o d et er mi n e
if a sti m ul us is t hr e at e ni n g a n d tri g g ers a n e m oti o n al r es p o ns e, t e n ds t o b e o v er a cti v e i n t h os e
w h o h a v e e x p eri e n c e d m altr e at m e nt ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3; T ei c h er et al.,
2 0 2 0). Ps y c hi atri c dis or d ers t h at pr es e nt e d i n i n di vi d u als w h o h a v e s h o w n t o h a v e str u ct ur al or
f u n cti o n al a b n or m aliti es wit hi n t h e a m y g d al a i n cl u d e P S T D, s o ci al p h o bi as a n d s p e cifi c p h o bi as,
u ni p ol ar a n d bi p ol ar d e pr essi o n, dr u g a d di cti o n, a uti s m, b or d erli n e p ers o n alit y dis or d er, as w ell
as s c hi z o p hr e ni a ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). I nt er esti n gl y, a u ni q u e c h ar a ct eristi c of a b n or m al
a m y g d al a str u ct u r e a n d f u n cti o n i n cl u d es t h e pr es e nt ati o n of a str ess-i n d u c e d a m y g d al a
h y p ertr o p h y t h at u nli k e hi p p o c a m p al h y p ertr o p h y, e n d ur es l o n g aft er t h e c ess ati o n of a str ess or
( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). Eff e cts of e arl y e x p os ur e t o m altr e at m e nt h as b e e n s h o w n t o
s e nsiti z e t h e a m y g d al a t o f urt h er str ess t h at i n e vit a bl y l e d t o t h e r e d u c e d v ol u m e t h at b e c o m es
m ost o bs er v a bl e i n l at e a d ol es c e n c e or a d ult h o o d ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6) .
Hi p p o c a m p us . P e a k p eri o ds of s e nsiti vit y f or t h e hi p p o c a m ps r a n g e b et w e e n 3 -5 y e ars
of a g e ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). T h e hi p p o c a m p us is a k e y r e gi o n t h at is i n v ol v e d i n t h e

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f or m ati o n a n d r etri e v al of m e m ori es ( T ei c h er & S a m s o n, 2 0 1 6) as w ell as b ei n g a str ess s e nsiti v e br ai n str u ct ur e t h at is i n v ol v e d i n l e ar ni n g a n d m e m or y r es p o nsi bl e f or e m oti o n al
r e g ul ati o n ( K e n n y, 2 0 1 6, p. 2 4). R e d u c e d v ol u m e i n t h e hi p p o c a m p us, c e ntr al t o l e ar ni n g a n d
m e m or y, is s e e n i n a d ults w h o w er e m altr e at e d ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3;
T ei c h er et al., 2 0 2 0). A b n or m aliti es of t h e hi p p o c a m p us h a v e b e e n n ot e d i n s e v er al ps y c hi atri c
dis or d ers a n d t h er ef or e if r e d u c e d hi p p o c a m p al v ol u m e is a n ot e d c o ns e q u e n c e of C M, it w o ul d
h el p e x pl ai n w h y t his fi n di n g h as b e e n s e e n a cr oss a n arr a y of ps y c hi atri c dis or d ers i n cl u di n g
P T S D, d e pr essi o n, s c hi z o p hr e ni a, a n d bi p ol ar dis or d ers ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). O n a n ot h er
n ot e, r e d u c e d hi p p o c a m p al v ol u m e h a s b e e n r e p ort e d wit hi n st u di es l o o ki n g at r esili e nt
i n di vi d u als w h o w er e e x p os e d t o m altr e at m e nt w h o h a v e b e e n n ot e d t o h a v e n ot d e v el o p e d a n y
ps y c h o p at h ol o g i es ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6).
C o r p us C all os u m . D e cr e as e d v ol u m e i n t h e c or p us c all os u m, r es p o nsi bl e f or l eft -ri g ht
br ai n c o m m u ni c ati o ns as w ell as e m oti o n a n d hi g h er c o g niti v e a biliti es ar e s e e n i n m altr e at e d
a d ults a n d c hil dr e n ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3 ; T ei c h er et al., 2 0 2 0). D uri n g
st u di es r el at e d t o t h e B u c h ar est E arl y I nt er v e nti o n Pr oj e ct, it w as f o u n d t h at t h e c or p us c oll os u m
s h o w e d si g nifi c a nt r e d u cti o ns i n v ol u m e i n or p h a ns w h o r e m ai n e d i n a n i nstit uti o n al s etti n g
( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). F urt h er m or e, t h e c or p us c all os u m w as n o n -si g nifi c a ntl y r ed u c e d
r el ati v e t o c o ntr ols i n or p h a ns w h o w er e assi g n e d at a p pr o xi m at el y 1 5 m o nt hs of a g e t o hi g h er l e v el f ost er c ar e, w hi c h s u g g est e d t h at t h e eff e cts of v er y e arl y n e gl e ct w er e s u bst a nti all y
r e v ers e d or t h at t h e c or p us c all os u m was aff e ct e d b y e x p eri e n c es t a ki n g pl a c e i n t h e
i nstit uti o n ali z e d s etti n g b et w e e n t h e assi g n m e nt of t h e s etti n g a n d t h e ass ess m e nt ( T ei c h er &
S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). Dis or d ers ass o ci at e d wit h r e d u c e d t hi c k n ess a n d v ol u m e of t h e c or p us c all os u m

30
i n cl u d es A D H D, s p e cifi c all y i n c hil dr e n, a n d bi p ol ar dis or d er i n a d ults ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n,
2 0 1 6).
P r ef r o nt al C o rt e x . P e a k p eri o ds of s e nsiti vit y f or t h e pr efr o nt al c ort e x ( P F C) ar e
b et w e e n 1 4 -1 6 y e ars of a g e ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). I n a d diti o n t o t h e af or e m e nti o n e d r e gi o ns
of t h e br ai n ass o ci at e d wit h C M, ps y c h o p at h y, a n d r esili e n c e, t h e P F C is criti c all y i n v ol v e d i n
t h e e x e c uti v e c o ntr ol of c o g niti o ns, e m oti o ns, a n d str ess r es p o ns e (I o a n ni dis et al., 2 0 2 0). T h os e
wit h a hist or y of C M pr es e nt wit h alt er e d v ol u m es of t h e P F C (I o a n ni dis et al., 2 0 2 0). U nli k e t h e
ot h er m e nti o n e d diff er e n c es i n b r ai n ar c hit e ct ur e, l ar g er P FC v ol u m e m a y b e r el at e d t o r esili e nt
f u n cti o ni n g aft er C M si n c e l ar g er P F C v ol u m e h as b e e n ass o ci at e d wit h a c a d e mi c a c hi e v e m e nt,
c o n d u ct, r el ati o ns hi ps, a n d e m oti o n al h e alt h (I o a n ni dis et al., 2 0 2 0). O n e as p e ct t h at is n ot cl e ar
is w h et h er t h e i n cr e as e d P FC v ol u m e is a pr e -e xisti n g v ul n er a bilit y i n t h os e at ris k or if it
r e pr es e nts a d a pti v e gr o wt h i n r es p o ns e t o str ess i n r e sili e nt i n di vi d u als (I o a n ni dis et al., 2 0 2 0),
w hi c h m a y b e a f a ct or i n t h e d e v el o p m e nt of r esili e n c y. T h e P F C pl a ys a n i m p ort a nt r ol e i n
i n hi biti n g str ess i n t h e li m bi c r e gi o ns a n d h as b e e n n ot e d t o h a v e i n cr e as e d i n hi bit or y a cti vit y i n
t h e a nt eri or ci n g ul at e c ort e x w hi c h h as b e e n li n k e d t o r esili e n c y aft er C M (I o a n ni dis et al.,
2 0 2 0).
H y p ot h al a mi c -Pit uit a r y -A d r e n al A xis . R e d u c e d a cti vit y of t h e li m bi c s yst e m is a k e y
c o m p o n e nt si n c e li m bi c a cti vit y a cti v at es t h e h y p ot h al a mi c -pit uit ar y -a dr e n al a xis ( H P A), a c or e
c o m p o n e nt of t h e n e ur o e n d o cri n e s yst e m t h at c o ntr ols str ess r e a cti o ns, i m m u n e f u n cti o ns, a n d
ot h er p h ysi ol o gi c al pr o c ess es (I o a n ni dis et al., 2 0 2 0 ; F e d er et al., 2 0 1 9). A h or m o n e k n o w n as
c ortis ol t h at h el ps m e di at e t h e b o d y’s str ess r es p o ns e, h as s h o w n a li n k t o m altr e at m e nt a n d
irr e g ul ar c ortis ol l e v els, w hi c h c a n c a us e h ei g ht e n e d l e v els of str ess , a n d l o w er l e v els of c ortis ol
c a n c a us e a bl u nt e d r es p o ns es t o str ess ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3).

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G e n eti cs a n d N e ur ol o gi c al Gr o wt h
W h e n c o nsi d eri n g t h e r es e ar c h d o n e i n c hil d m altr e at m e nt a n d its aff e ct e d n e ur o bi ol o g y,
it is i m p ort a nt t o u n d erst a n d t h at, e v e n d es pit e s p e cifi c i m pli c ati o ns a b o ut g e n eti cs, t h er e ar e n o
g e n es t h at dir e ctl y gi v e ris e t o t h e d e v el o p m e nt of ps y c h o p at h y ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7).
H e n c e e x pl ai ni n g t h e p er pl e xi n g n at ur e of r esili e n c y, ps y c h o p at h y, a n d cri m i n al b e h a vi o ur.
Alt h o u g h n o dir e ct c a us e -a n d -eff e ct of g e n es t o ps y c h o p at h y, w h at w e d o k n o w is t h e g e n es c o d e
f or pr ot ei ns t h at i nfl u e n c e o ur c h ar a ct eristi cs t h at c o ntri b ut e t o m a ki n g us w h o w e ar e w hi c h
i n cl u d es n e ur o c o g niti v e v ul ner a biliti es t h at m a y i n t ur n, i n cr e as e t h e ris k f or d e v el o pi n g f e at ur es
r el at e d t o ps y c h o p at h y ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7). S o m e bi o b e h a vi or al st u di es of r esili e n c e
f o c us es o n t h e p ossi bilit y of “ u n d oi n g ” or “r e pr o gr a mi n g ” s yst e ms of t h e i n di vi d u al aff e ct e d b y
C M r e g ar di n g i nt er g e n er ati o n al tr a ns missi o n of pr o gr a m mi n g eff e cts t hr o u g h t h e pr o c ess
e pi g e n eti c m o difi c ati o n ( M ast e n et al., 2 0 2 1). T his p at h of t hi n ki n g a n d r es e ar c h c o ul d hi g hli g ht
t h at si n c e tr a u m a eff e cts c a n b e tr a ns mitt e d a cr oss g e n er ati o ns, pr ote cti v e f a ct ors c o ul d als o b e
tr a ns mitt e d or, e x p eri e n c es aft er birt h c o ul d u n d o e pi g e n eti c c h a n g es i n or d er t o pr ot e ct t h e c hil d
( M ast e n et al., 2 0 2 1) fr o m c o ns e q u e n c es of a b n or m al br ai n ar c hit e ct ur e a n d its s u bs e q u e nt
f u n cti o ni n g. N e ur o n al p at h w a ys t h at ar e d e v el o p e d a n d str e n gt h e n e d u n d er n e g ati v e c o n diti o ns
pr e p ar e c hil dr e n t o c o p e i n t h at n e g ati v e e n vir o n m e nt, a n d t h eir a bilit y t o r es p o n d t o n urt uri n g
a n d ki n d n ess m a y b e i m p air e d ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3).
P ositi v e e n vir o n m e nt al f a ct ors m a y s u p p ort m or e r esili e nt f u n cti o ni n g t hr o u g h a cti n g o n
c or e n e ur o bi ol o gi c al pr o c ess es ( H P A a xis) e v e n aft er t h e m al a d a pti v e e n vir o n m e nt al e x p eri e n c es
o c c urr e d (I o a n ni dis et al., 2 0 2 0). Fi n di n gs t hr o u g h f M RI st u di es s h o w t h at y o ut h w h o
d e m o nstr at e r esili e n c y s h o w a n u m b er of c h a n g es i n br ai n ar c hit e ct ur e, i n cl u di n g b ut n ot li mit e d

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t o, l o w er a m y g d al a r es p o ns e t o n e g ati v e sti m uli a n d i n cr e as e a cti v ati o n of t h e P F C w hil e
a m y g d al a s h o w e d r e d u c e d a cti v ati o n w hi c h s u g g ests e n h a n c e d e m oti o n al r e g ul ati o n a biliti es
( E at o n et al., 2 0 2 2).
As t h e br ai n d e v el o ps, it cr e at es, str e n gt h e ns, a n d dis c ar ds c o n n e cti o ns c all e d s y n a ps es
( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T h e d e v el o p m e nt of s y n a ps es o c c ur at a hi g h r at es
d uri n g a c hil d’s e arl y y e ars i n r es p o ns e t o a c hil d’s e x p eri e n c es , a n d b as e d o n t h es e e x p eri e n c es,
s o m e s y n a ps es ar e str e n gt h e n e d b ut ot h ers ar e gr a d u all y pr u n e d a w a y as p art of n or m al
d e v el o p m e nt ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). E a c h br ai n r e gi o ns gr o ws i n r el ati o n
t o t h e sti m uli r e c ei v e d, a n d if a c hil d d o es n ot r e c ei v e a p pr o pri at e sti m uli d uri n g a p eri o d of
gr o wt h, c ert ai n n e ur o n al p at h w a ys m a y n ot b e f ull y d e v el o p e d ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n
G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3).
T h e h u m a n br ai n c o nti n u es t o d e v el o p u ntil a n i n di vi d u al r e a c h es t h eir mi d -t w e nti es a n d
ri g ht b ef or e p u b ert y, t h e a d ol es c e nt br ai n e x p eri e n c e s a gr o wt h s p urt t h at m ai nl y o c c urs i n t h e
fr o nt al l o b e ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). T h e fr o nt al l o b e o v ers e es pl a n ni n g,
i m p uls e c o ntr ol, a n d r e as o ni n g ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). It s h o ul d b e n ot e d
t h at i m p ulsi v e b e h a vi o ur, p o or d e cisi o ns, a n d i n cr e as e d ris k-t a ki n g ar e p art of t h e n or m al
t e e n a g e e x p eri e n c e ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at ew a y, 2 0 2 3).
A c o n c e pt k n o w n as p l as cit y all o ws us t o l e ar n a n d a d a pt a n d m a k e u p f or miss e d
e x p eri e n c es l at er i n lif e ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). B e c a us e t h e br ai n a d a pts t o
its e n vir o n m e nt, it c a n a d a pt t o a n e g ati v e e n vir o n m e nt j ust as m u c h as it w o ul d wit h a p ositi v e
e n vir o n m e nt w hi c h c a n l e a d t o c hil dr e n a d o pti n g w h at ar e vi e w e d as n e g ati v e tr aits as a r e a cti o n
t o t h e m altr e at m e nt t h e y h a v e e n d ur e d a n d e x p eri e n c e d ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y,
2 0 2 3).

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E pi g e n eti cs r ef ers t o alt er ati o ns i n h o w g e n es w or k a n d ar e e x pr ess e d ( C hil d W elf ar e
I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). A m o difi c ati o n o c c urs w h e n a c h e mi c al si g n at ur e att a c h es
t h e ms el v es t o g e n es w hi c h h el ps t ur n g e n es “ o n ” or “ off ” ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y,
2 0 2 3). T h es e m o difi c ati o ns m a y b e p er m a n e nt a n d c a n b e i n h erit e d. St u di es of o n e p arti c ul ar
g e n e, N C R 3 C 1, b e e n ass o ci at e d b et w e e n c hil d h o o d m altr e at m e nt a n d i n cr e as es i n m et h yl ati o n ( a
c h e mi c al si g n at ur e), a n d t h es e i n cr e as es i n m et h yl ati o n ar e r el at e d t o i n cr e as e d e xt er n ali zi n g
b e h a vi o urs a n d hi g h er d e pr essi v e s y m pt o ms ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3).

G e n er al I m pli c ati o ns of N e ur o bi ol o g y i n C hil d h o o d M altr e at m e nt
R el ati n g br ai n ar c hit e ct ur e a n d br ai n d e v el o p m e nt t o t h os e w h o h a v e e x p eri e n c e d C M,
r e d u c e d gr a y m att er v ol u m e, bl o o d fl o w, or t hi c k n es s h as b e e n r e p ort e d i n or bit ofr o nt al c ort e x of
t h e R o m a ni a n or p h a ns as w ell as i n p o p ul ati o ns wit h p h ysi c al or s e x u al a b us e, or D e p art m e nt of
S o ci al S er vi c es d o c u m e nt e d a b us e, a n d m altr e at e d i n di vi d u als wit h o ut ps y c h o p at h y ( T ei c h er &
S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6). O v er all, c hil dr e n w h o h a v e b e e n m altr e at e d pr es e nt wit h r e d u c e d br ai n v ol u m e
c o m p ar e d t o n o n -m altr e at e d c hil dr e n w hi c h i n cl u d es r e d u cti o ns i n v ari o us ar e as of t h e c ort e x
( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3), als o, t h e e x p eri e n c e of m altr e at m e nt m a y aff e ct t h e
c o n n e cti o ns b et w e e n diff er e nt br ai n r e gi o ns.
O n e as p e ct of a n i n di vi d u al’s br ai n str u ct ur e a n d f u n cti o n h as t o d o wit h t h eir r e w ar d
p at h w a y. R e w ar d s e nsiti vit y i n t h e br ai n of a n a d ol es c e n c e’s br ai n d e v el o p m e nt is hi g hl y
v ul n er a bl e t o e n vir o n m e nt al c o nti n g e n ci es ( K e n n y, 2 0 1 6). O n e st u d y e x pl ai ns t h at pr os o ci al
b e h a vi o urs r es ults i n pr o -s o ci al r e w ar ds, a n d a ntis o ci al r e w ar ds t h at r ei nf or c e cri mi n alit y r es ults
i n f urt h er a ntis o ci al b e h a vi o urs, if t h er e is n o pr os o ci al b e h a vi o ur a v ail a bl e at t his ti m e ( K e n n y,
2 0 1 6). H ei g ht e n e d r e w ar d r es p o ns es a n d sti m ul i ar e ass o ci at e d wit h hi g h er l e v els of d o p a mi n e ,

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w hi c h h as b e e n s h o w n t o p e a k d uri n g t h e a d ol es c e n c e a n d p u b ert y p h as es of i n di vi d u al
d e v el o p m e nt ( K e n n y, 2 0 1 6). D o p a mi n e h as s h o w n t o b e a cr u ci al f a ct or i n d e cisi o n -m a ki n g, f u n s e e ki n g, ris k y b e h a vi o ur, as w ell as d e cr e as e d h ar m -a v oi d a n c e w hi c h s p e a ks t o t his h or m o n e ’s
i nfl u e n c e o n i n c e nti v e-dri v e n b e h a vi o urs ( K e n n y, 2 0 1 6).
N et w or k ar c hit e ct ur e v ul n er a bilit y i n cr e as es i n m altr e at e d i n di vi d u als a n d r e a c h es a
pl at e a u ar o u n d 2 1 y e ars of a g e ( T ei c h er et al., 2 0 2 0), a n d t h e i n cr e asi n g n et w or k v ul n er a bilit y i n
m altr e at e d i n di vi d u als d uri n g a d ol es c e n c e a n d e arl y a d ult h o o d li k el y r es ults fr o m t h e c o m bi n e d
c o ns e q u e n c es of t h e pr u ni n g of g e n er al fi b er p at h w a ys a n d f ail ur e t o a d e q u at el y d e v el o p fr o nt al
ass o ci ati o n p at h w a ys u n d erl yi n g t h es e fr o nt al n et w or k r e gi o ns ( T ei c h er et al., 2 0 2 0). T h er ef or e,
t h e i n cr e asi n g n et w or k v ul n er a bilit y d uri n g a d ol es c e n c e a n d e arl y a d ult h o o d i n m altr e at e d
i n di vi d u als l e a ds t o t h e e m er g e nc e of ps y c hi atri c s y m pt o ms a n d pr o bl e ms wit h s u bst a n c e us e
t h at m a nif ests w h e n n et w or k v ul n er a bilit y r e a c h es a st a g e w h e n t h e n et w or ks c a n n o l o n g er c a n
eff e cti v el y c o m p e ns at e f or a b n or m aliti es ( T ei c h er et al., 2 0 2 0). N e ur o pl asti cit y of t h e d e v el o pi n g
br ai n is n o w st arti n g t o b e vi e w e d as a c e ntr al c o m p o n e nt t o r esili e n c e, s u g g esti n g t h at r esili e n c e
t o str ess is a k e y el e m e nt of a h e alt h y br ai n ( M ast e n et al., 2 0 2 1).

C o n n e cti o n t o C ri m e
T a k e n t o g et h er, b ot h cri mi n ol o gists a n d ps y c h ol o gist s h a v e f o u n d t h at a d ults w h o
c o m mit s eri o us a n d vi ol e nt cri m e oft e n h a v e hi g h er r at es of c hil d m altr e at m e nt , i n c o m p aris o n t o
t h e g e n er al p u bli c, of tr a u m a a n d a b us e (J or g e ns e n, 2 0 1 9). I n a st u d y b y K e n n y ( 2 0 1 6, p. 2 3) it
w as st at e d t h at i n t h e C hil dr e n ( Cri mi n al Pr o c e e di n g s) A ct of 1 9 8 7, a g ui di n g pri n ci pl e is t h at
“ c hil dr e n w h o c o m mit off e n c es b e ar r es p o nsi bilit y f or t h eir a cti o ns, b ut b e c a us e of t h eir st at e of
d e p e n d e n c y a n d i m m at urit y, r e q uir e g ui d a n c e a n d assist a n c e ”. U nf ort u n at el y, d eli n q u e nt y o ut h

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ar e oft e n c a u g ht i n t h e c y cl e of vi ol e n c e, w hi c h i nt e gr at es t h e s o ci al l e ar ni n g t h e or y of cri m e t h at
t h e is c hil d l e ar ni n g t h e p ar e nt al st yl es of vi ol e nt b e h a vi o ur a n d t h e n t h e c hil d is r e-cr e ati n g t his
b e h a vi o ur t hr o u g h o ut t h eir lif e ( D o el m a n et al., 2 0 2 3).
Alt h o u g h p ast st u di es h a v e v ari e d i n t h eir c a us e -a n d -eff e cts of cri m e as w ell as t h e t y p e
of cri m e, o n e c o m m o n p att er n h as p ersist e d. T h at is, e vi d e n c e s h o ws a n i n cr e as e of g e n er al
d eli n q u e nt b e h a vi o ur a n d vi ol e nt d eli n q u e nt b e h a vi o ur i n j u v e nil es wit h a h ist or y of C M , w h er e
b et w e e n 1 4 % - 3 4 % of t h e g e n er al p o p ul ati o n of c hil dr e n h a v e e x p eri e n c e d at l e ast o n e tr a u m ati c
e v e nt , a n d it b e c o m es i n cr e asi n gl y m or e si g nifi c a nt w h e n l o o ki n g at y o ut h w h o h a v e h a d
e n c o u nt ers wit h t h e j usti c e s yst e m, as esti m at es ris e t o 7 5 % -9 3 % of c hil dr e n w h o h a v e
e x p eri e n c e d at l e ast o n e tr a u m ati c e v e nt ( D o el m a n et al., 2 0 2 3, p. 5 3 0; K ell e y et al., 2 0 1 7).
A n ot h er st u d y s h o ws a n o v er all i n cr e as e of tr a u m a hist or y a m o n g t h e p o p ul ati o n of all
i n c ar c er at e d m e n, w o m e n, a n d y o ut h t o b e as hi g h as 9 0 % (J or g e ns o n, 2 0 1 9). T h at b ei n g s ai d,
t h er e is mi x e d e vi d e n c e of t h e eff e ct of C M o n a s p e cifi c t y p e of off e ns e ( D o e l m a n et al., 2 0 2 3,
p. 5 3 1), t h er ef or e, t h er e is a g a p f or f ut ur e r es e ar c h t o fill , i n or d er t o dis c er n if a diff er e n c e or
c o n n e cti o n e xists i n t h e t y p e of C M a n d its p ossi bl e c o n n e cti o n t o cri m e.
Of n ot e, w hil e a m aj orit y of i n di vi d u als wit h a hist or y of c hil d h o o d a d v ersit y ar e
i n v ol v e d i n cri m e, it is n ot e d t h at o nl y a s m all n u m b er of t his p o p ul ati o n wit h a hist or y of C M
h a v e a lif e c o m mitt e d t o t h at of cri mi n al off e n di n g a n d b e h a vi o ur ( H asl a m & T a yl or, 2 0 2 2). T h e
i m p air m e nts n ot e d e arl y ass o ci at e d wit h T BIs h as oft e n b e e n ass o ci at e d as ris k f a ct ors wit hi n t h e
r es e ar c h of cri mi n ol o g y a n d its r el at e d fi el ds ( H u g h es et al., 2 0 1 5; Ni c h ol as et al., 2 0 1 5), s o
m u c h s o t h at t h es e i m p air m e nts h a v e b e e n str o n gl y a ss o ci at e d wit h e arl y -o ns et a n d b ei n g a lif e c o urs e p ersist e nt off e n d er as w ell as its o bs er v e d n e ur o c o g niti v e i m p air m e nts. O n e i nt er esti n g
st at e m e nt m a d e b y t his s a m e st u d y is t h at t h e y f o u n d t h at t h e n u m b er of ti m es a n i n di vi d u al h as

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e x p eri e n c e d l oss of c o ns ci o us n ess i n r el at i o n t o t h eir T BIs w as f o u n d t o b e hi g h er a m o n g t h e
p o p ul ati o n p ersist e nt off e n d ers ( H u g h es et al., 2 0 1 5).
T h e ot h er si d e of u n d erst a n di n g t h e n e ur o bi ol o g y of a n off e n d er a n d u n d erst a n di n g t h e
“ w h y ” of cri m e, is t h e u n d erst a n di n g of r esili e n c y. T h e d e v el o p m e nt of r esili e n c y is s ai d t o o c c ur
w h e n e n vir o n m e nt al, i n di vi d u al, a n d s o ci al f a ct ors e xist w hi c h disr u pt t h e p at h w a y l e a di n g t o
a d v ers e o ut c o m es ( M u ell er & C ar e y, 2 0 2 2, p. 1 3 1). T h e g e n er al t h e or y of cri m e, us e d i n a 2 0 2 2
st u d y b y M u ell er a n d C ar e y, vi e w cri m e as e as y a n d gr atif yi n g t o i n di vi d u als wit h l o w l e v els of
s elf-c o ntr ol, a n d h as b e e n f o u n d t o pr e di ct cri mi n al b e h a vi o ur ( M u ell er & C ar e y, 2 0 2 2, p. 1 3 0).
T his s a m e st u d y s u g g ests t h at t hr o u g h a c hil d’s a c c u m ul ati o n of A C Es, s elf -c o ntr ol d e cr e as es.
T h e i m p a ct of P C Es ( p ositi v e c hil d h o o d e x p eri e n c es) h o w e v er, a c c or di n g t o t h e st u d y, s u g g est e d
t h at P C Es r et ain t h eir b e n efi ci al i m p a cts o n s elf -c o ntr ol, b ut t his is n ot t o s a y t h at t h e y o v erri d e
a n y A C Es ( M u ell er & C ar e y, 2 0 2 2, p. 1 4 1 -1 4 2).
B y a p pl yi n g a n ot h er t h e or y of cri m e k n o w n as t h e ge n er al str ai n th e or y, it c o ul d b e
e x pl ai n e d t h at t h e e x p eri e n c e of c hil d m altr e at m e nt i n cr e as es t h e ris k of n e g ati v e or m al a d a pti v e
c o pi n g str at e gi es i n or d er t o tr y t o all e vi at e str ai n ( H asl a m & T a yl or, 2 0 2 2), a n d t his t h e or y g o es
o n t o ar g u e t h at t his c o ul d r es ult i n f urt h er b ei n g a vi cti m as w ell as t h e off e n d er. E v e n m or e s o,
it h as b e e n n ot e d t h at t h os e w h o w or k wit hi n t h e j usti c e s yst e m, s p e cifi c all y t h e j u v e nil e j usti c e
s yst e m, ar e n ot al w a ys e q ui p p e d wit h h a n dli n g y o ut h s wit h a tr a u m ati c p ast ( K ell e y et al., 2 0 1 4).
T h er ef or e, t h er e ar e r e p orts t h at y o u n g off e n d ers w h o e nt er t h e j usti c e s yst e m oft e n d o n ot
r e c ei v e tr e at m e nt a n d r e h a bilit ati o n a n d ar e oft e n r e-tr a u m ati z e d t hr o u g h t h e pr o c ess es of arr est
a n d c o nfi n e m e nt ( K ell e y et al., 2 0 1 4). S p e a ki n g t o t his p att er n, it w as f o u n d t h at lif e -c o urs e p ersist e nt off e n d er s ar e m or e li k el y , g e n er all y s p e a ki n g, t a k e p art i n m or e s e v er e a n d vi ol e nt

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cri mi n al b e h a vi o ur , w h er e as stri ctl y y o ut h off e n d ers t a k e p art i n m or e mi n or a cts of d eli n q u e n c y
s u c h as r ul e br e a ki n g ( K e n dl er, 2 0 1 5).
T h e a b o v e lit er at ur e r e vi e w h as e x e m plifi e d t h at t h er e is i n d e e d s o m e s ort of c o n n e cti o n
b et w e e n t h e e x pr essi o ns of a n i n di vi d u al’s n e ur o bi ol o g y a n d t h eir a cti o ns i n cri m e. T h e s e v erit y
a n d si m pli cit y of t h e c o n n e cti o n, h o w e v er, is f ar fr o m b ei n g est a blis h e d a n d all o ws f or f ut ur e
r es e ar c h t o c o nti n u e.

R el ati o ns hi p t o T y p e s a n d S e v e rit y of Cri m e
M ost vi ol e nt cri m e is c o m mit t ed b y a s m all gr o u p of m e n w h o dis pl a y c o n d u ct pr o bl e m
( C P) i n c hil d h o o d a n d A S P D ( K oll a et al., 2 0 1 3) . A mi n orit y als o m e et t h e crit eri a f or
ps y c h o p at h y as ass ess e d b y t h e P C L -R ( ps y c h o p at h y c h e c klist -r e vis e d) (K oll a et al., 2 0 1 3) . As
c hil dr e n t h e y pr es e nt C Ps a n d C U tr aits a n d i m p air m e nts i n t h e r e c o g niti o n of s a d n ess t h at is als o
o bs er v e d a m o n g a d ult off e n d ers wit h ps y c h o p at h y (K oll a et al., 2 0 1 3). O n e s p e cifi c st u d y l o o k e d
at t h e r el ati o ns hi p b et w e e n C M a n d g a n g a cti vit y ( H asl a m & T a yl or, 2 0 2 2). T h e y f o u n d t h at
“ n e gl e ct -e x p eri e n c e d i n di vi d u als w er e m or e t h a n t wi c e as li k el y t o b e c o nsist e ntl y i n v ol v e d i n
g a n gs ” ( H asl a m & T a yl or, 2 0 2 2, p. 8).
A m o n g vi ol e nt off e n d ers, t h os e wit h ps y c h o p at h y r e p ort e d gr e at er c hil d h o o d p h ysi c al
a b us e b ut n ot m or e s e x u al or e m oti o n al a b us e t h a n t h os e wit h o ut ps y c h o p at h y (K oll a et al.,
2 0 1 3).
I n t er ms of pr o m oti n g t h e g o al of b ei n g r esili e nt, r es e ar c h h as d e m o nstr at e d t h at i n t h e
c o nt e xt of r e ci di vis m, r esili e n c e m a y a ct u all y b e m or e a p pli c a bl e i n pr e v e nti n g a g ai nst t h e o ns et
of off e n di n g alt o g et h er i nst e a d of r esili e n c e b ei n g a pr ot e cti v e f a ct or a g ai nst r e ci di vis m ( F o u g er e
et al., 2 0 1 5).

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Dis c ussi o n
Pr e v e nti o n , Tr e at m e nt , a n d P oli c y C h a n g es
Pl asti cit y a n d s e nsiti v e p eri o ds d e m o nstr at e d b y t h e st u di es c o n d u ct e d a b o ut t h e
R o m a ni a n i nstit uti o ns hi g hli g hts t h e i m p ort a n c e of e arl y i nt er v e nti o n i n h el pi n g c hil dr e n a d a pt
a n d n ot o nl y s ur vi v e, b ut t o b e a bl e t o stri v e t hr o u g h o ut t h e r e m ai ni n g d ur ati o n of t h eir lif e
( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). I nt e nsi v e, a n d e arl y i nt er v e nti o ns t h at o c c ur w h e n
t h e br ai n is m ost pl asti c is m u c h m or e eff e cti v e t h a n r e a cti v e s er vi c es as t h e c hil d a g es ( C hil d
W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). S o m e r es e ar c h h as s h o w n e vi d e n c e f or ass ess m e nt a n d
i nt er v e nti o n t o st art d uri n g t h e p eri-tr a u m ati c p eri o d i n or d er t o t a k e a d v a nt a g e of t his k e y
wi n d o w of ti m e f or t h e d e pl o y m e nt of e arl y i nt er v e nti o ns t o b o ost r esili e n c e a n d r e c o v er y
( R o e c k n er, et al., 2 0 2 1).
S o m e st u di es h a v e b e e n a bl e t o s h o w t h at diff er e nt t y p es of m altr e at m e nt as w ell as t h e
s p e cifi c a g e of t h e c hil d e x p eri e n ci n g m altr e at m e nt h as b e e n ass o ci at e d wit h s p e cifi c
n e ur o bi ol o gi c al a b n or m aliti es of t h e br ai n’s str u ct ur e a n d f u n cti o n ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6).
T his is a n i m p ort a nt a c k n o wl e d g e m e nt as t his s ort of i nf or m ati o n m a y pr o v e criti c al i n d esi g ni n g
a n d pr o vi di n g t h e o pti m al tr e at m e nts ( T ei c h er & S a ms o n, 2 0 1 6) f or r e c o v er y as w ell as
pr e v e nti o n t o C M.
K e e pi n g i n mi n d t h at a c hil d’s br ai n m a y a d a pt t o t h e e n vir o n m e nt t h e y ar e e x p os e d t o
w hil e d e v el o pi n g c a n h el p c as e w or k ers b ett er u n d erst a n d a n d e m p at hi z e wit h w h y a c hil d or
a d ult m a y b e a cti n g i n a s e e mi n gl y m al a d a pti v e m a n n er i n a sit u ati o n t h at t h e c as e w or k er
t h e ms el v es d o n ot vi e w as b ei n g str essf ul or d es er vi n g of a p arti c ul ar r e a cti o n ( C hil d W elf ar e
I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). F urt h er t o t his p oi nt of t h o u g ht, r es e ar c h h as c o m e s o f ar t h at o n e
st u d y h as h y p ot h esi z e d t h at br ai n alt er ati o ns ass o ci at e d wit h c hil d h o o d tr a u m a mi g ht b e a d a pti v e

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i n r es p o ns e t o m altr e at m e nt, ( C assi ers et al., 2 0 1 8), b ut o nl y i n t h e i niti al st a g es of e x p eri e n ci n g
s u c h tr a u m a, all o wi n g t h e c hil d t o c o p e wit h t h e sit u ati o n. T his st u d y g o es o n t o st at e t h at “i n t h e
l o n g r u n t h e y m a y l e a d t o m al a d a pti v e b e h a vi o ur i n ot her ( n or m ati v e) e n vir o n m e nts, t h us
f or m atti n g a l at e nt v ul n er a bilit y f or t h e d e v el o p m e nt of ( ps y c h o) p at h ol o g y ” ( C assi ers et al.,
2 0 1 8, p. 3).
C hil dr e n m a y dis pl a y u n us u al a n d/ or diffi c ult c o pi n g b e h a vi o urs , a n d t h er ef or e, b ei n g
a bl e t o u n d erst a n d t h e n e ur o bi ol o g y u n d erl yi n g t h es e b e h a vi o urs m a y h el p c ar e gi v ers i n s h a p i n g
t h eir r es p o ns es m or e eff e cti v el y ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). A d diti o n all y, s o m e
c ar e gi v ers m a y h a v e e n c o u nt er e d m altr e at m e nt i n t h eir o w n c hil d h o o d, a n d b ei n g a bl e t o
u n d erst a n d h o w t h at aff e cts br ai n d e v el o p m e nt m a y h el p t h e m b ett er u n d erst a n d t h eir o w n
hist or y a n d c urr e nt c o pi n g m e c h a nis ms ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3).
D es pit e b e h a vi o urs, n e ur o bi ol o gi c al i m pli c ati o ns, a n d p ast e x p eri e n c es, it is r e c o g ni z e d
t h at c ar e gi v ers wit h a c hil d pr es e nti n g wit h ps y c h o p at hi c tr aits c a n b e e xtr e m el y c h all e n gi n g t o
r ais e a n d c ar e f or, a n d r es e ar c h h as s h o w n t his t o b e t h e c as e, as t h es e c hil dr e n oft e n e v o k e
diff er e nt p ar e nti n g r e a cti o ns ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7), w hi c h cr e at es a c y cl e of n e g ati v e
c ar e gi v er a n d c hil d i nt er a cti o ns , as w ell as a n o v er all n e g ati v e t o n e t o t h eir r el ati o ns hi p. T his
hi g hli g hts t h e i m p ort a n c e o f s e e ki n g h el p o utsi d e f a mil y n et w or ks t o e ns ur e t h e b est i nt er v e nti o n
a n d tr e at m e nt f or b ot h t h e c hil d as w ell as t h os e wit hi n t h eir s o ci al n et w or k.

I m pli c ati o ns f or F ut ur e R es e ar c h
Littl e is k n o w n a b o ut t h e m e c h a nis ms ( B o w es & J aff e e, 2 0 1 3, p. 2 0 3) of h o w r esili e n c e
d e v el o ps a n d e x pr ess es its elf. R es e ar c h t h us f ar h as s u g g est e d t h at t h e “ o n e -si z e-fits-all ” m o d el
of pr e v e nti o n a n d i nt er v e nti o n eff orts is u nli k el y t o b e n efit all i n di vi d u als ( B o w es & J aff e e,

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2 0 1 3, p. 2 0 3). W h e n c o nsi d eri n g t h e s eri o us n at ur e of ps y c h o p at h y a n d its eff e cts, b ot h
r es e ar c h ers a n d cli ni ci a ns ar e m oti v at e d t o u n d erst a n d h o w ps y c h o p at h y d e v el o ps a n d h o w it
mi g ht b e pr e v e nt e d ( Vi di n g & M c Cr or y, 2 0 1 7). C o n si d eri n g t his st at e m e nt, c o nti n ui n g r es e ar c h
i n t his ar e a of i nt er est pr es e nts as a cr u ci al as p e ct i n u n d erst a n di n g t h os e i n di vi d u als t h at c o m mit
cri m e, a n d t h er ef or e, d et er mi ni n g eff e cti v e p oli c y c h a n g e s as w ell as c h a n g es i n pr e v e nti o n a n d
i nt er v e nti o n t h at is m or e c at er e d t o t h e i n di vi d u al i nst e a d of t h e o v er all g e n er al p o p ul ati o n.
A n ot h er p oi nt c o nsi d er ati o n f or f ut ur e dir e cti o ns i n r es e ar c h, is t h e ur g e t o st arts eff orts
i n t h e pr es c h o ol y e ars ( M or eir a et al., 2 0 2 0, p. 1 1). If i nt er v e nti o n a n d tr e at m e nt eff orts w er e t o
b e gi n i n t h e y o u n g er y e ars of a c hil d’s lif e, i nt er v e nti o n eff orts c o ul d b e m a d e m or e i m p a ctf ul
a n d c o n d u ci v e i n or d er t o pr o m ot e r esili e n c e a g ai nst all o d ds alr e a d y h a n d e d t o t h e c hil d.
T h er ef or e, b e n efiti n g n ot o nl y t h e c hil d a n d t h eir f ut ur e, b u t als o b e n efiti n g s o ci et y a n d t h e
p ot e nti al i m p a cts t h at c o ul d o c c ur if a c hil d w er e t o g o o n t o li v e a lif e of cri m i n al b e h a vi o ur a n d
off e n di n g.
O n e st u d y f o u n d t h at c hil dr e n w h o s h o w e d r esili e n c y h a d diff er e nt l e v els of c o n n e cti vit y
b et w e e n v ari o us r e gi o ns of t h e br ai n t h a n t h os e w h o s h o w e d s y m pt o ms, e v e n t h o u g h b ot h h a d
t h e s a m e l e v els of br ai n alt er ati o ns ( C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3). R es e ar c h ers ar e
still tr yi n g fi g ur e o ut w h y t his is, a n d s o m e i m pli c ati o ns c o ul d i n cl u d e pr e -e xisti n g
n e ur o bi ol o gi c al c h ar a ct eristi cs of a c hil d t h at all o w t h e m t o b e r esili e nt, c ert ai n pr ot e cti v e
f a ct ors, c o n diti o ns, or attri b ut es t h at r e d u c e ris k a n d pr o m ot e h e alt h y d e v el o p m e nt ( C hil d
W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3).

C o n cl usi o n

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T his r es e ar c h st u d y h as pr o vi d e d a v er y br o a d lit er at ur e r e vi e w of s e c o n d ar y r es e ar c h
d at a o n t h e t o pi c of t h e pr es e n c e a n d d e v el o p m e nt ps y c h o p at h y a n d r esili e n c y, r el at e d t o c hil d
d e v el o p m e nt a n d c hil d m altr e at m e nt i n t h e c o nt e xt of cri mi n al off e n di n g i n y o ut h, as w ell a cr oss
t h e lif es p a n. T his t o pi c st art e d wit h t h e dis c ussi o n of c hil d d e v el o p m e nt as a w h ol e a n d br o u g ht
t o li g ht t h e si g nifi c a n c e of c hil d a n d c ar e gi v er i nt er a cti o ns (C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y,
2 0 2 3) , a n d dis c uss e d h o w t h es e r el ati o ns hi ps c a n pl a y a l ar g e r ol e i n i nfl u e n ci n g t h e
n e ur o bi ol o gi c al e x pr essi o ns of eit h er ps y c h o p at h y or r esili e n c y . T h e c o n c e pt of t o xi c a n d
s e nsiti v e p eri o ds w er e bri efl y dis c uss e d d u e t o t h eir pr e v al e n c e t hr o u g h o ut t h e r est of t h e st u d y .
T h e r el e v a n c e of t o xi c str ess t o ps y c h o p at h y a n d r esili e n c e , a n d w h at cr e at es t o xi c str ess s u c h as ,
h ars h p ar e nti n g st yl es a n d tr a u m ati c e x p eri e n c es t h at cr e at es a pr ol o n g e d str ess r es p o ns e
( H ar v ar d U ni v ersit y 2 0 2 3 b; C hil d W elf ar e I nf or m ati o n G at e w a y, 2 0 2 3) , as w ell as t h e o ut c o m es
of t o xi c str ess r el ati n g t o a ntis o ci al p ers o n alit y dis or d er as w ell as i n cr e asi n g ris k f a ct ors t o w ar ds
ps y c h o p at h y. S e nsiti v e p eri o ds pr o vi d e d i nsi g ht t o pl asti cit y of t h e d e v el o pi n g c hil d’s br ai n a n d
t h e v ul n er a bilit y t his cr e at es w h e n e x p eri e n ci n g m altr e at m e nt, all w hil e b ei n g i nfl u e nti al i n
d et er mi ni n g o n e’s lif e tr aj e ct or y ( S attl er et al., 2 0 2 3). T o assist i n a d di n g e vi d e n c e t o t his
r es e ar c h, st u di es l o o ki n g at si bli n g, t wi n, a n d or p h a n st u di es w hi c h hi g hli g ht e d t h e i m p ort a n c e i n
u n d erst a n di n g b e h a vi o ur t h at is attri b ut a bl e t o g e n eti cs or e n vir o n m e nt, t h e d e b at e of n at ur e
v ers us n urt ur e.
A k e y c o m p o n e nt of t his st u d y is its att e m pt t o u n c o v er p ossi bl e ass o ci ati o ns of
ps y c h o p at h y a n d r esili e n c y t o s p e cifi c tr a u m a s u bt y p es s u c h as p h ysi c al a b us e a n d n e gl e ct,
s e x u al a b us e, e m oti o n al a b us e, as w ell as l o o ki n g at t h e c o ntri b uti o ns of s o ci ol o gi c al f a ct ors. A
m aj or p art of t his r es e ar c h w as t o u n d erst a n d t h e i m pli c ati o ns t h at ps y c h o p at h y a n d r esili e n c y
h as o n t h e d e v el o p m e nt of br ai n str u ct ur e a n d its f oll o wi n g f u n cti o ns. T his i n cl u d e d t h e eff e cts

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of c hil d m altr e at m e nt, tr a u m ati c br ai n i nj uri es, as w ell as dis or d ers s u c h as f et al al c o h ol
s p e ctr u m dis or d er. R e gi o ns of i nt er est i n t h e st u d y of br ai n str u ct ur e a n d f u n cti o n i n r el ati o n t o
c hil d m altr e at m e nt i n cl u d es t h e a m y g d al a, hi p p o c a m p us, c or p us c al l os u m, pr efr o nt al c ort e x, a n d
t h e h y p o-pit uit ar y -a dr e n al a xis. T his, h o w e v er, is n ot a n e x h a usti v e list of t h e r e gi o ns aff e ct e d b y
c hil d m altr e at m e nt. T h es e fi n di n gs d e m o nstr at e d p ossi bl e e x pl a n ati o ns t o a c c o u nt f or
b e h a vi o ur al pr o bl e ms oft e n ass o ci at e d wi t h ps y c h o p at h y as w ell as e vi d e n c e f or t h e d e v el o p m e nt
of r esili e n c y .
A p r o mi n e nt c o m p o n e nt of t his st u d y w as r el at e d t o cri mi n al off e n di n g, a n d t h er ef or e a n
a n al ysis of s o m e s p e cifi c c o n n e cti o ns b et w e e n c hil d m altr e at m e nt a n d cri mi n al b e h a vi o ur w as
m a d e. A k e y t a k e a w a y h er e is t h at r es e ar c h h as s h o w n t h at , i n g e n er al, i n c ar c er at e d p o p ul ati o ns
h a d a hi g h er pr e v al e n c e of h a vi n g a hist or y of c hil d m altr e at m e nt c o m p ar e d t o t h os e w h o h a v e
n ot b e e n i n c ar c er at e d (J or g e ns e n, 2 0 1 9).
Fi n all y, t his st u d y w as a bl e t o hi g hli g ht t h e criti c al a n d ur g e nt n at ur e of t h e pr e v e nti o n of
ps y c h o p at h y a n d t h e n e e d t o p us h f or m et h o ds a n d pr o gr a ms t o pr o m ot e r esili e n c y. Pr e v e nti o n is
k e y i n e ns uri n g t h at c hil dr e n a n d y o u n g a d ults st a y o ut of t h e j usti c e s yst e m t o a v oi d b ei n g
r etr a u m ati z e d b y t h e pr o c ess es of t h e j usti c e s yst e m ( K ell e y et al., 2 0 1 4). Tr e at m e nt t o st art t h e
h e ali n g pr o c ess f or p e o pl e w h o h a v e b e e n vi cti ms of a n y s ort of c hil d m altr e at m e nt is a cr u ci al
c o m p o n e nt of pr o m oti n g r esili e n c y i n or d er t o gi v e y o ut hs t h e c h a n c e at a p ositi v e lif e tr aj e ct or y
( E at o n et al., 2 0 2 2). I n c o n cl usi o n, t his st u d y a n d r el at e d r es e ar c h cr e at es t h e o p p ort u nit y t o gi v e
a v oi c e t o t h os e w h o d o n’t h a v e t h e a bilit y t o us e t h eir o w n.

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R ef e r e n c es
B o w es, L. & J aff e e, R. S. ( 2 0 1 3). Bi ol o g y, g e n es, a n d r esili e n c e: T o w ar d a m ulti dis ci pli n ar y
a p pr o a c h. Tr a u m a, Vi ol e n c e, a n d A p pr o a c h, 1 4 ( 3), 1 9 5-2 0 8.
htt ps:// d oi. or g/ 1 0. 1 1 7 7/ 1 5 2 4 8 3 8 0 1 3 4 8 7 8 0 7
C assi ers, M. L. L., S a b b e, C. G. B., S c h m a al, L., Di c k, J. V., P e n ni n x, H. J. W. B., & V a n D e n
E e d e, F. ( 2 0 1 8). Str u ct ur al a n d f u n cti o n al br ai n a b n or m aliti es ass o ci at e d wit h e x p os ur e t o
diff er e nt c hil d h o o d tr a u m a s u bt y p es: A s yst e m ati c r e vi e w of n e ur oi m a gi n g fi n di n gs.
Fr o nti ers i n Ps y c h ol o g y, 9 ( 3 2 9), 1-1 7. htt ps:// d oi. or g/ 1 0. 3 3 8 9/f ps yt. 2 0 1 8. 0 0 3 2 9
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