CNIE 2010: Heritage Matters: Inspiring Tomorrow
Formal Research Paper: Technology and Accompanying Issues
The Clark-Kozma Debate in the 21st Century
Katrin Becker, becker@minkhollow.ca
ABSTRACT
This paper takes a fresh look at the Clark/Kozma debate from the perspective of 21st century new
media technologies in general and serious games in particular. After a brief re-cap of the key
elements of the debate, a relatively recent article by R.E.Clark is summarized that brings serious
games into the conversation. Clark’s allegations are addressed and the case is made that digital
games form a distinct medium that can not easily be lumped in with other educational
technologies. The author draws on over a decade of personal experience teaching with games to
move the debate to the next level and offer some recommendations for when and how games can
be used effectively in formal contexts.
Introduction
Everything old is new again. Complaints about the role and use of technology in education have
been with us since Socrates declared that students should not be taught to write because he
believed that writing diminished memory. Similar complaints have accompanied every other
technology introduced into schools to assist teaching and learning, and digital games have their
detractors as well as their champions. Richard E. Clark first began this debate in the 80’s, when
computers were just starting to be seen as instructional technology for formal education. The
now-classic Clark/Kozma “media effects” debate (Clark, 1983, 1994; Kozma, 1991, 1994) has once
again been revived by Clark in a relatively recent editorial in Educational Technology Magazine
(2007), and he has now moved it into the serious games space. Clark argues that serious games
have little to offer that improves upon traditional methods such as lectures. He continues to
invoke his ‘vehicle’ analogy which describes the medium as simply the vehicle of delivery for
instruction - something that is not really a part of the instruction itself. What Clark fails to
acknowledge is that this analogy doesn’t work with digital games (nor with a great many other
modern technologies - especially those that are interactive in some way).
The Debate
In 1983, Richard E. Clark published the results of a meta-analysis that examined the influence of
media on learning where he concluded that media do not influence learning under any
circumstances. This is quite a strong position and it is one that Clark has stood by for nearly 30
years, in spite of whatever media developments have occurred in the mean time. The medium is
not the message according to Clark, but rather it is merely the vehicle whereby instruction is
delivered and has no influence on instruction, just like the truck used to deliver goods to a store
has no influence on the groceries it carries. He expands the analogy by explaining that the only
factors affecting the choice of 'vehicle' are practical ones, such as cost and distribution, and that
the only influence on learning comes from the instructional method. Any benefit that comes from
the use of media is passed off as essentially wishful thinking. In 1983, Clark recommended that
researchers give up on exploring the relationship between media and learning unless new theories
are suggested (Clark, 1983).
The response that triggered the 'classic debate' did not appear until 1991, when Richard Kozma
met Clark's challenge and proposed a new theory outlining the synergy between media, content,
and the interaction of the learner with that environment (Kozma, 1991). Kozma reviewed
literature on the use of various media forms, including books and television, and concluded that
various media have distinct symbol systems and processing capabilities that can compliment
those of the learner and produce a unique experience.

In spite of various volleys back and forth by Clark, Kozma, and others there remains no conclusive
evidence that any one medium is more effective than any other. Clark still uses this to conclude
that specific media choices are irrelevant to educational outcomes, while Kozma remains
optimistic that effects will become noticeable and suggests we consider the effects based on the
attributes of the medium rather than the specific medium itself. It is noteworthy that Clark bases
this conclusion on research conducted before the turn of this century as much has changed in the
last decade. The “technology” of Educational Technology was vastly different now and discussing
the effectiveness of media, potential or otherwise in 2007 using reports from more than ten years
ago is like discussing today's traffic issues using data from 1820.
21st Century Clark
Times have indeed changed, and what we can do with the technologies available for use in
education and elsewhere are fundamentally different in many ways from the kinds of technologies
on which Clark based his conclusion of technology’s irrelevance. In 1983 Clark concluded that
"based on this consistent evidence, it seems reasonable to advise strongly against future media
comparison research. Five decades of research suggest that there are no learning benefits to be
gained from employing different media in instruction, regardless of their obviously attractive
features or advertised superiority. All existing surveys of this research indicate that confounding
has contributed to the studies attributing learning benefits to one medium over another and that
the great majority of these comparison studies clearly indicate no significant difference." (Clark,
1983, p. 450)
While this position may have been defensible nearly three decades ago, to fail to acknowledge the
monumental character of the changes brought on by technological developments in the last
decade is to reveal a complete lack of understanding of New Media. In 1983 Internet protocols
had just been standardized and Tandy produced the first laptop computer. Few people had home
computers and even fewer had access to the Internet. "Mobile" phones were clunky and required
mobile operators and a link to a land line – the 3G phones of today are part of the current
century. In 1983 the Windows operating system had not yet been released and home videogame
consoles were in their infancy. While the fundamentals of how computers function have not
changed radically in the mean time, what we can do with computers and how we can access them
and each other using them has changed a great deal, and the rate of change for newer, faster, and
more ubiquitous ways to access communication technologies and the information now stored
digitally continues to increase.
While many teachers are still acclimatizing to the use of email for communication, their students
have already left email behind in favour of instant messaging, social networks and utilities like
Google Docs (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). Clark's position that the choice of media is
irrelevant to the effectiveness of instruction may come as a relief to many educators who must
cope with shrinking budgets and a technological landscape that changes faster than anyone can
keep up with, but it does not reflect reality and ultimately contributes to an ever growing digital
generation gap. The current generation of students, known by some as “Gamers” (Beck & Wade,
2004) is the first to grow up in a world which, from a technological standpoint, is radically
different from the one in which most of their teachers grew up, especially if we remember that the
average age of teachers in Canada is abut 45 (according to the demographics listed on the ad rate
page at canadianteachermagazine.com). That means that the average teacher was trained when
computers were hardly ‘personal’ at all, and the Internet was only accessible by universities and
militaries.
Serious Games
In 2007, Clark revived his debate by claiming that serious games suffer from the same
shortcomings as other media and that the lack of irrefutable evidence of superiority justifies the
dismissal of the medium as a primary mechanism of instruction. Unfortunately, Clark's article
contains numerous misapprehensions and errors which do more to undermine Clark's credibility

as a qualified critic than they do to support his claims. He again rehashes his ‘vehicle’ analogy and
he continues to use largely outdated and selectively biased sources to support his claims. The next
sections will address some of the misconceptions in Clark’s arguments.
Serious Games ≠ Educational Games, But all Games are Simulations
The first issue that needs to be cleared up is that when it comes to games, the terms serious and
educational are NOT synonymous. Serious games do include educational games, but the term also
includes games for health, the military, social justice, exercise, politics, advertising, and more.
Related to this is the notion that digital games and digital simulations are somehow distinct. It is
interesting that Clark chose to reference the older edition of Gredler’s chapter (1996) to support
his argument about the confusion between games and simulations when a newer chapter was
available (2004). The confusion over the distinctions between games and simulations is unique to
education – the digital simulation community and the video game industry are not similarly
confused (Becker & Parker, 2006). The software underlying digital games contains the same
algorithms as those for discrete event simulations.
The Vehicular Metaphor Applied to Digital Games
It is possible to view games as receptacles for content rather than teaching methods as Clark
would have us do, but only in a select subset of games such as puzzles and those that emulate a
typical television game show format. Such games represent a very small portion of the ways in
which games can be and have been used to facilitate learning, and in fact most educational games
where the game component is obviously a receptacle for the content are now widely accepted as
poor designs (Jenkins, 2002).
The design of a digital game is a complex process, as is the design of instruction and one cannot
simply be imposed onto the other, nor can one hope to design a good educational game if one
knows only about instructional design and not about game design - the success of any game for
learning can only come from a successful synergy of both. Ultimately, if a game designed for
learning is a success or failure, the credit (or blame) cannot be attributed to either the game
design OR the instructional design, but must be placed squarely on the shoulders of both. The
medium of the videogame isn't just a vehicle, like a car that gets us from one place to another.
Even if we did want to stay with the vehicle analogy, we would have to use land vehicles, planes,
ships, and submarines and not just trucks. They are all vehicles and they all get us from one place
to another (much like successful instruction is supposed to do), but however much I like nice cars,
I wouldn't want to have a Ferrari when what I really need is a submarine.
Instructional design is about message design and when it comes to games and other interactive
technologies, the medium is absolutely part of the message. Designing instruction is a wicked
problem (Becker, 2007) and it does instructional designers a great disservice to imply that the
delivery method they use makes no difference.
Serious Games and Clark's Replacibility Test
In Clark’s second original article written just 15 years ago, he argues that since no single media
attribute forms a unique cognitive effect, the attributes are not important. Clark tells us that
“Whenever you have found a medium or set of media attributes which you believe will cause
learning for some learners on a given task, ask yourself if another (similar) set of attributes would
lead to the same learning result” (Clark 1994, p.28). Humans are incredibly adaptable when it
comes to learning, and when there is sufficient need or motivation most people are able to
compensate for less than optimal conditions. Many students still learn what they need to even
when the intervention is poorly designed or the facilitation is inadequate but one would hope that
this would not form the basis of an argument for eliminating teacher training or careful
instructional design.

We all know it is possible to make do with nothing but lectures and textbooks, but we
acknowledge the importance of creating a learning environment that actively engages the learner
in the task at hand (Schank, Berman, & Macpherson, 1999) and whether we refer to videogames
as media or simply ‘delivery methods’ does not alter the fact that games and game technology
offer a mechanism for ‘learning by doing’ that in many cases would be too expensive or dangerous
to do in real life (Aldrich, 2009). There are lessons that simply can not be done without the use of
modern technology. It is hard to imagine the space program succeeding without the help of the
simulators they used for training.
More Errata
Although some of Clark’s arguments appear to be quite convincing, they turn out to be somewhat
less weighty when the correct numbers are inserted. For example, Clark claims that the gross
revenue for serious games in 2005 was estimated at 500 million dollars as reported by Ben
Sawyer (Clark, 2007). This number is off by a factor of 10 as Sawyer states that the real figure was
closer to 50 million (Parker, Becker, & Sawyer, 2008). Similarly, he states that the development
cost of a serious game is one to ten million dollars, when in fact that was the typical cost for a
commercial title in 2005, which is also considerably less than commercial titles cost at the time
Clark wrote his article. When using numbers to support an argument it always helps to have the
right numbers.
The Challenge of Combining Instructional Design and Game Design
Games are indeed expensive to make if one is trying to make them look like big-budget
commercial games. Many of the well-known commercial games have Hollywood-sized
development budgets and development timelines that span several years. Obviously, most serious
games and especially most educational games can not even begin to compete in these arenas and
should probably not try to. Where does that leave us? The use of games for learning has
tremendous potential, but we can not succeed if we merely try to copy the commercial model, nor
can it succeed if we try to superimpose our favorite instructional design models onto a game. The
design of effective and compelling games for learning requires creativity and a thorough
understanding of instructional design to be sure, but it requires much more than this - it requires
a thorough understanding of games AND of game design. One can not teach what one does not
practice (Stroustrup, 2010) and, one cannot design what one does not understand. One would not
expect to be able to write a best-selling novel if one had never read one, nor should one expect to
be able to design a good game if one does not play games.
The truth of the matter is that technology, in and of itself, can neither improve nor impoverish
instruction. “Instructional technology only works for some kids, with some topics, and under
some conditions – but that is true of all pedagogy. There is nothing that works for every purpose,
for every learner, and all the time.” (Mann, 2001, p. 241)
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Biography
Katrin has taught Computer Science for over 30 years. She also teaches game design and technical
writing. Her PhD in Educational Technology focuses on instructional game design. She’s been
teaching about digital games since 1998 and taught one of the first Digital Game Based Learning
courses for an Education faculty.