Katrin Becker The Pedagogy of Commercial Games nmc 2005 Notes: Credits that appear on only one slide are listed with that slide’s annotations. Others are listed at the end. Slide 1: Why are These Such Good Teachers? When looking at how the different forms of modern media have been used for educative purposes and which particular instances have been chosen, one notion stands out – the majority of the most remarkable and effective “lessons” taught to us have been created by extraordinarily talented writers, directors, and producers together with their teams. They have, by and large, not been created by professional educators or instructional designers. Far from trying to sell educators and instructional designers short, we should recognize the opportunities afforded us in studying these outstanding examples of “educational” objects, and try to learn why they have the impact they do. By “studying the masters”, we can progress towards understanding the essential elements of ‘good’ games and begin to discuss the implications this holds for the deliberate design of educational games. Credits: Romeo And Juliet [movie version] 1968, Director: Franco Zeffirelli UK / Italy Cast: Leonard Whiting, Olivia Hussey, John McEnery, Milo O'Shea, Pat Heywood, Robert Stephens, Michael York, Bruce Robinson...[image: http://www.moviewallpapers.net/] To Kill a Mockingbird [book] 1959, Harper Lee [image: http://www.amazon.ca] Of Mice and Men [book] 1937, John Steinbeck [image: http://www.amazon.ca] Catcher in The Rye [book] 1945-46, J.D. Salinger[image: http://www.amazon.ca] Don Quixote [book] 1605, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra [image: http://www.wikipedia.org ] Amos and Andy [radio program] 1928-1953 [image: http://www.wikipedia.org] West Wing [TV drama] 1999- [image: http://www.nbc.com/The_West_Wing/ Schindler’s List [movie], 1993, Steven Spielberg [image: imdb.com] Aesop’s Fables [stories], ~600 BC [image: Arlene Graston ] A Christmas Carol [book] Charles Dickens. 1843 [image: imdb.com] Slide 2: Are Games Good Teachers Too? • • • Games are so engaging precisely because they tap into some of the most effective approaches for learning. Successful games teach us to play in the manner we learn best. Play and Learning are Linked Piaget (1951) and Bruner (1962) have said that play is important for deep learning, so perhaps they might (have) agree(d) with the assertion that players are also learners. Credits: Bruner, J. S. (1962). On knowing; essays for the left hand. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton. Slide 3: How Do Games Teach? – Learning Theories The next slides are just a few examples of how games can be shown to implement known learning theories and styles. Gagné’s Nine Events Applied to Games: 1. Gaining Attention (Reception) “attract mode” (what one sees when a game appears to be playing by itself) the set-up. Also, trailers. 2. Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy) back-story and description of the victory condition trailer, advertising, and at start of the game. In sequels, basic premise usually is similar to the previous game. In licensed games, the back story is pre-determined. A game based on Spiderman should involve fighting crime, and the main character would look, and act in a particular way and have particular abilities as well as weaknesses. 3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval) back-story: sequels and new levels refer back to things learned, achieved, or discovered in previous levels/versions. At the start of a game, the opening sequence describes some thing that players are expected to know. Some games provide both subtle (a glow around an object) and not-so-subtle clues (a voice actually tells you). Katrin Becker The Pedagogy of Commercial Games nmc 2005 4. Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) If a player can not easily determine what she needs to do in a given situation, she will become frustrated and eventually give up. If I wander aimlessly about in Pikmin, I will eventually get a reminder of my ultimate goal, and a hint – where to look, something to do or examine. 5. Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) Games must be self-contained; players do not use manuals. Learning how to play is accomplished within the game itself. In effect, games act as the tutor – use a multitude of sophisticated “just-in-time” approaches to providing help. Verbal or written hints, items that glow briefly as they come into view, NPC’s that tell you something or offer help. Real world fan communities. 6. Eliciting Performance (Responding) This is, of course, an essential component of interactivity – without this, there really is no game. While the physical interface for most games is limited and tends to remain the same from game to game and console to console, how one actually plays the game can vary. 7. Providing Feedback (Reinforcement) – provided in many ways, including scores; displays (the head up display, or HUD being a common approach); queries; and verbal feedback. Characters within games typically have various attributes that the player can monitor throughout the game: strength, magic, health, etc. 8. Assessing Performance (Retrieval) – Achieving a favourable assessment is what the game is about. Even in a game like Dance Dance Revolution where there are no opponents to fight, no treasure to find, and no puzzle to solve, a running ‘score’ of how closely the players’ moves approximate perfection is essential. 9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalization) –moving through levels within a single game requires players to remember skills, knowledge and strategies learned in the previous level and use them to overcome obstacles and solve problems in the next. On a larger scale, skills and strategies learned in one game are often applicable to sequels, other games and even entire genres. Credits: Gagné, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Reeves, Thomas C., GAGNÉ'S NINE EVENTS TEMPLATE Instructional Technology, College of Education, The University of Georgia Slide 4: How Do Games Teach? – Learning Theories Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory Elaboration theory proposes seven major strategy components, and when they are applied to the design of good games we find: 1. An Elaborative Sequence. Good games follow a well-paced sequence progressing from simple (and easy) to complex (and hard). A Game explains its own context (theoretical), requirements to operate (procedural), and goals for play (conceptual). 2. Learning Prerequisite Sequences. Tutorial mode - involves some simplifications as well as suggestions. Bossbattles, death-spirals. Story-mode. 3. Summary. Almost all games provide some form of “stats” (HUD – score, health, strength, maps, assets, etc.) 4. Synthesis Levels of play - building on knowledge gained from the previous one. Often players are defeated many times before finishing a game. Each time they try again, they do so having gained some knowledge or understanding that they will apply correctly this time in order to progress a little further. 5. Analogies. Players very quickly learn to look for approaches or tactics that are similar to some other game they have played, and will try to apply these in any new context that looks like it might favour this approach. 6. Cognitive Strategies. Progressions, repertoires, etc. exist by the very design of games and is one of their great achievements: the ability to force the player to use strategies invented by the designers in order to achieve their goals. A significant part of the challenge, enjoyment, and attraction of games is the desire to uncover the requisite strategies that allow the player to reach the ‘victory condition’ in a game. 7. Learner Control. Player (learner) control is an obvious requirement of all games: without this it stops being categorized as a game. Credits: Reigeluth, C. M., Merrill, M. D., Wilson, B. G., & Spiller, R. T. (1980). The elaboration theory of instruction: A model for sequencing and synthesizing instruction. Instructional Science, 9(3), 195-219. Indiana University’s Instructional Design Theories Home Page http://www.indiana.edu/~idtheory/home.html Kearsley, Greg, Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database http://tip.psychology.org/reigelut.html Katrin Becker The Pedagogy of Commercial Games nmc 2005 Slide 5: How Do Games Teach? – Learning Styles Keirsey (based on Myers-Briggs) Artisans value freedom and spontaneity. They tend to be impulsive, playful and creative. Guardians value belonging to a group or community. They tend to be traditional, responsible and conservative. Idealists value personal growth, authenticity, and integrity. They tend to try and encourage these traits in others. This group includes people they define as “teachers”. Rationals value competence and intelligence. They strive for knowledge, predictability, and control. Kolb’s Learning Style & Characteristic Description Converger: · Practical application of ideas · Focus on hypo-deductive reasoning on specific problems · Unemotional · Narrow interests Diverger: · Imaginative ability · Generates ideas and sees things from different perspectives · Interested in people · Broad cultural interests Assimilator: · Can create theoretical models · Excels in inductive reasoning · Abstract concepts rather than people. Accommodator: · Doing · Risk taker · Can react to immediate circumstances · Solves problems intuitively Credits: Keirsey, D., & Bates, M. M. (1984). Please understand me: Character & temperament types (5th ed.). Del Mar, CA: Distributed by Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of group process. London: John Wiley. Myers, I. B., & McCaulley, M. H. (1985). Manual: A guide to the development and use of the myers-briggs type indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Slide 6: How Do Games Teach? – Learning Styles Felder’s Index of Learning Styles Index of Learning Styles Active (doing) Medal of Honor, Star Wars, Super Mario Kart Sensing (facts, processes) Civ III, SIMs, Age of Empires Visual (seeing, picturing) Super Mario Kart, Super MonkeyBall Sequential (step-wise) Roller Coaster Tycoon, Myst Reflective (thinking) Black & White, Syberia, Myst Intuitive (concepts, relationships) Pikmin, Katamary Damacy, Harvest Moon Verbal (hearing, reading, saying) Elecrtoplankton, Karaoke Revolution Global (leaps, random) Psychonauts, Grim Fandango Credits: Felder, R. M., & Silverman, L. K. (1988). Learning and teaching styles in engineering education. Engineering Education, 78(7), 674-681. Fedler, R.M., and Soloway, B., University of North Carolina, INDEX OF LEARNING STYLES (ILS) http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSpage.html Slide 7: How Do Games Teach? – Learning Styles Gregorc System of Learning Gregorc's Learning Styles ConcreteLinear and sequential. Sequential ConcreteConcrete and intuitive Random Thrives on problem- solving. AbstractAbstract and analytical Sequential Thrives on a mentally challenging but ordered learning environment. AbstractEmotional and imaginative, Random Prefers an active, interesting, and informal learning environment. Super MonkeyBall, Pikmin Syberia, Myst Myst, Syberia Katamari Damacy, Electroplankton Katrin Becker The Pedagogy of Commercial Games nmc 2005 Credits: Gregorc, A. F. (1985). Inside styles: Beyond the basics: Questions and answers on style. Maynard, Mass.: Gabriel Systems. Dennis W. Mills, Ph.D. (2002) Applying What We Know Student Learning Styles http://www.csrnet.org/csrnet/articles/student-learning-styles.html Slide 7: Next Steps • • • • • Is there a balance in games today? Are games preferentially “training” to certain styles? Are certain types/genres of games preferred by certain styles of learners? Do gamers have similar styles? How might we leverage this for education? Credits: Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational technology research and development: ETR & D, 50 Part 3, 43-60. Further Resources: 1. Becker, Katrin, Games and Learning Styles Presented at the Special Session on Computer Games for Learning and Teaching, at The IASTED International Conference on Education and Technology ~ICET 2005~ July 4-6, 2005 Calgary, Alberta, Canada 2. Becker, Katrin, How Are Games Educational? Learning Theories Embodied in Games DiGRA 2005 2nd International Conference, "Changing Views: Worlds in Play" Vancouver, B.C. June 16-20, 2005 3. Becker, Katrin, Pedagogy in Commercial Video Games, Book Chapter, to appear in Games and Simulations in Online Learning: Research and Development Frameworks, in press at Idea Group Inc http://www.idea-group.com/ edited by David Gibson, 2005 4. Brown, J. S., Denning, S., Groh, K., & Prusak, L. (2001). Storytelling: Passport to the 21st century. Retrieved June 30 2004, 2004, from http://www.creatingthe21stcentury.org/Intro0-table.html 5. ESA. (2005). Essential facts about the computer and video game industry: 2005 sales, demographics, and usage. Retrieved Sept 25 2005, 2005, from http://www.theesa.com/files/2005EssentialFacts.pdf 6. Frasca, G. (2001). Ludology meets narratology: Similitude and differences between (video)games and narrative. Retrieved 31/10/2004, 2004, from http://www.ludology.org/articles/ludology.htm 7. Gamespot.com http://www.gamespot.com 8. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. 9. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 10. Juul, Jesper, Half-Real: A Dictionary of Video Game Theory. http://www.half-real.net/dictionary . (Accessed December 3, 2005.) 11. Koster, R. (2004). Theory of fun for game design (1 edition (September 17, 2004) ed.): O'Reilly & Associates. 12. Mobygames.com http://www.mobygames.com 13. Wikipedia, http://www.wikipedia.com