I have found the missing link
between the higher ape and
civilized man: It is we.

Konrad Lorenz

Game Ethology
The Missing Link: A Methodology
for Analyzing Design through
Behaviour in Games
Katrin Becker, University of Calgary
1

Outline

•
•
•
•

Background
Are We There Yet?
Serious Game Design
So What’s the Problem?

– Game Analysis for Design (A Solution)

• Finding Masterpieces

– Studying the Masters

• Game Ethology
• Sample Analysis
• Next?
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

2

Background (mine)

• Amateur Naturalist & Ethologist since
childhood.
• Trained in Computer Science
• CS Instructor 1983-2006
– Programming, Data Architecture

• Educational Technologist since 2003
– Instructional Design

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

3

Are We There Yet?

• Do we know enough about game design
to stop investigating it?

• Do we know enough about serious game
design to stop researching how to make
them?
• Is design for Serious Games the same as
design for Commercial Games?
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

4

Serious Game Design
Differences

Game Design

Serious Game
Design

Focus Player Experience
(how)

Content / Message
(what)

Content / In accord with each
Method other (content may
be irrelevant)

Method secondary to
Content (game as
receptacle?)

Vantage Entertainment (&
Point SENG?)

SIG (medicine,
military, social
change, ...)

Fidelity self-consistent,
otherwise irrelevant

Faithfulness to
message essential

Credentials Industry
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

SIG (and industry?)
5

So What’s the Problem?
How do we make (good) serious games?

• Software Engineering?

– 30+ years and we STILL haven’t found the
Grail

• Theater & Film?

– Documentary, training, & other non-fiction?

• Education?

– Instructional Design?

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

6

What’s The Answer?

Pontificate (i.e. pull the answer out of your ........).
Hire only those with proven records of success.
Borrow methodologies from other design
disciplines.
Study & Analyse Players.
Study & Analyse Games.

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

7

Analysis of Games for Serious Design

Three fundamental assumptions:
1. Players must learn and indeed do learn new
things while playing the game.
2. It is possible to examine learning in a digital
game without associating what is learned
with value-laden educational aims.
3. Successful games are successful at least
partially because they already facilitate
learning.
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

8

Learning in Games

• All games are about learning.

– But NOT necessarily about Education

• Learning is what we DO.
• Learning is how we win the game.
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

9

Learning vs. Education
Learning

Education

Value-Neutral

Value-Laden

Can be Coincidental

Deliberate

Natural

Coerced/Persuaded

Internally
Motivated*

Externally
Motivated*

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

10

Learning in Serious Games
• Learning is still usually how we win the
game (or get to the end).
– About knowledge, skills, attitudes

• Some exceptions?

– psDoom [ http://psdoom.sourceforge.net/ ]
• utility

• Some are about action or prompting
action:

• Example: FreeRice [ http://www.freerice.com/ ]
• Drill / quiz / contest

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

11

Successful Games
Facilitate
Learning

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

12

Game Analysis for Design

Learn about how to make good
games by studying good games.
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

17

One Approach: Study the Masters
Why?

They already
have it right.

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

18

Studying the Masters

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

19

Good Games?

Data fusion: Combine ranked lists of
• Annual sales figures NPD Group
http://www.npd.com/press/releases/press_070119.html
• Review sites Best Ofs
–

–
–

•
•

–
–
–

Game Critics Awards: Best of E3 awards.
http://www.gamecriticsawards.com/
Metacritic: http://www.metacritic.com
IGN: (Independent Game Network) Top 100 Editor's Choice
http://www.ign.com/
GameSpot: Top Games http://www.gamespot.com/
Gamespy http://archive.gamespy.com/
MobyGames http://www.mobygames.com

IGDA awards
AIAS awards

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

20

Top 25 (as of Dec. 2006)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

Half-Life 2
Halo 2
Black & White
Grand Theft Auto: Vice City
Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas
Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time
Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time
Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2
Grand Theft Auto III
Spore
Shadow of the Colossus
Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3
Metroid Prime
GoldenEye 007
Deus Ex
World of Warcraft
God of War
Soul Calibur
Neverwinter Nights
Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker
Resident Evil 4
Nintendogs
Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic
Halo: Combat Evolved
Unreal Tournament

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

12.70
11.17
11.08
9.47
9.02
8.93
8.78
8.69
8.57
8.50
8.42
8.18
8.03
7.47
7.04
7.00
6.95
6.67
6.35
6.32
6.25
6.18
6.00
5.94
5.50

M
M
T
R
R
E
E
T
R
RP
T
T
T
T
M
M
M
T
T
E
M
E
T
M
M

AA
FPS
RTS
AA
AA
AA
AA
Sport
AA
Sim
AA
Sport
FIGHTING
FPS
AA
MMO
ACTION
FIGHTING
RPG
AA
Strategy
Sim
RPG
FPS
FPS

16
13
13
13
13
10
15
14
13
9
11
11
10
9
12
10
9
7
8
9
8
7
10
7
11

21

Methodological Synergy
Structural Analysis
Reverse
Engineering
Ontological
Excavation

Behavioural Analysis

Behaviour Studies

Game
Design
Documents

Ethology

Game as
Object

Game Structure
(static)
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

Game Ethology
(dynamic)
22

Methodological Synergy
Structural Analysis
Reverse
Engineering
Ontological
Excavation

Behavioural Analysis

Behaviour Studies

Game
Design
Documents

Ethology

Game as
Object

Game Structure
(static)
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

Game Ethology
(dynamic)

23

Ethology

Animal
Behaviour

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

24

Ethology

• Lorenz & Tinbergen credited as the
fathers of modern ethology
• Goes beyond structure
• Studies subjects in their natural habitats
• Attempts to answer:
– Why do they do the things that they do?
– What good does it do them?

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

25

Ethology

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

26

Ethology
1.

Causation. What are the stimuli that elicit the
response, and how has it been modified by recent
learning?

2.

Function: How does the behaviour impact on the
animal's chances of survival and reproduction?

3.

Development: How does the behaviour change
with age, and what early experiences are necessary
for the behaviour to be shown?

4.

Evolution: How does the behaviour compare with
similar behaviour in related species, and how might
it have arisen through the process of phylogeny?

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

27

Game Ethology

1.

Causation (interaction). [How does it work?] What are
the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been
modified by recent interaction?

2.

Development (flow): [How does it develop?] How does
the behaviour change over the life of the game, and what
early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be
shown?

3.

Evolution: [How it ‘evolve’?] How does the behaviour
compare with similar behaviour in related games, and how
might it have arisen through the process of evolution?

4.

Function (purpose): [What is it for?] How does the
behaviour impact on the game’s chances of success (survival)
and sequels?

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

28

How To Do Game Ethology

Measuring
behaviour.
Field Notes (What
does the game
do?)
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

29

Types of Behaviour
Type

Compound

Duration

Interruptible

Sequential

Step

single act

short

no

n/a

Event

several
steps

Short medium

no

ordered

Bout

several
bouts

medium

yes

un-ordered

Theme

events &
bouts

level or
game

yes

un-ordered

State

no

Short medium

no

n/a

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

30

Types of Behaviour

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

31

Measures (coding)
•

Duration: measure of the length of real time an event takes.

•

Instigator: What was the action that started the event?

•
•
•
•

Entry Event: provides details of the actions that triggered the event.
Terminator: same as the entry actions.
Exit Event: details of the exit action.
Location: Games exist in a finite space and often behaviours are
connected to specific locations. Other times events can occur in various
locations. Both can be significant.
Scene Description: Where is the action taking place? Describe scene;
any non-interactive or static objects on the screen should be described.
Behavioural Description: plain-English description of the actions that
comprise the event. Any sounds or music; which other characters or
objects are in the scene and whether they are active participants in the
interaction or not. The actions of the player should be described.
Dialogue: Transcribe any dialogue or other messages that are part of
the behaviour.

•
•

•

–
–

those that would be experienced under normal uninterrupted play
circumstances

Random, Time-Triggered, Player-Instigated, Choose Option, Choose
Next, State Driven (A particular condition is met), Other

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

32

So What?
Why am I doing this?
What is it good for?

• Basis for comparisons

• Same genre, Sequels, ‘Good’ games, Old games, Competitors

– Build structured body of knowledge on good games
(that can be compared against)

• Augment early phase playtesting
• Answer fundamental questions of our time
– Do good games provide more or fewer choices
(Events) than lesser games?
– How long are cut scenes in good games?

• Guiding questions during design
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

33

Sample Analysis

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

Gardening
in Animal
Crossing

34

Behaviour Type Examples

• Theme: Gardening
• Bout: water all the flowers in the
village
• Event: water a flower
• Step: pour
• State: flower health
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

35

Analysis: Ethology,
Causation (Interaction)

Stimuli for players:
• Watering can is a basic tool
• Flowers, weeds appear
What are the stimuli that
• Flowers go brown
elicit the response, and
how has it been modified
• Residents tell me to look
by recent interaction?
after flowers
(What makes it do that?)
Game stimuli:
• Planting flowers creates
more, generates new
colours
• Consistent maintenance
increases score
• Running over flowers
Not especially interesting
destroys them
at first glance, but
• Watering brown flowers
behaviour BECOMES
interesting when
revives them
Reviewed in light of
• Picking brown flowers
other aspects.
36
destroys them
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada
Game Ethology

Analysis: Ethology, Development
(Ontogeny, Game Flow)
• ‘First level’ tutorial
• Flowers must be planted*
• Very little change in the game
over the life of the game  the

change is alm ost all in the
player

How does the behaviour
change over the life of the
game (like from level to
level), and what early
experiences are necessary
for the behaviour to be
shown?
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

• Effect is predictability.
• Few penalties beyond immediate
one (next ‘day’).
• Jacob’s Ladders appear when the
balance is right, but not every
day.
• Rewards include new colours,
Jacob’s Ladders, golden rose,
golden watering can
Game Ethology

37

Analysis: Ethology, Evolution
• Previous animal crossing
(with adaptations for
platform)
• Limited RPG style / sim
ancestors
– Harvest Moon

• Format:

How does the behaviour
compare with similar
behaviour in related
games, and how might it
have arisen through the
process of evolution?
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

– Changes in choices (options
include only those that
make sense)
– Pockets
– Currency

More informative when
looking at multiple games.
Game Ethology

38

Analysis: Ethology, Function (purpose) – how
does it support game’s goals?
• Cultivation
• Collections
• Bells for flowers
•
Experience.....
How does the behaviour
impact on the game’s
• Obvious penalties for
chances of success
(survival) and sequels?
misses (natural
consequences)
For Serious
Games: How
• Effort is rewarded
does the
behaviour
advance or help
the game’s
purpose?

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

39

Next

• New approach

– Needs refinement

• Has potential to add to
understanding of games in new
ways.
Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

40

Thanks!

Questions?

Katrin Becker, MIGS 2007, Serious Games Canada

Game Ethology

41